(Mt) – BU Recruitment Examination, and Selection Job Analysis and Evaluation Questions

Chapter FOUR Recruitment and Selection S M I T an agency’s human resources T o be effective, program must be able to recruit and select people who are well qualiH fied, ablee to deve develop skillss ed, responsive respo o s ve to available ava ab e incentives, ce t ves, aand d ab op new ew sk , r capable and abilities. ab bilitiies. The capacity cap apac acit ity to acquire acq qui uire capab ble employees emp m lo oyees is is essential esse es senttia iall if government gove go vern nme ment n is is to successfully successfu ull llyy provide prov ovid idee the th numerous nu ume m ro ous services serr vice cess associa so as soci ciated service. selection, a ed with modern at mod dern public pub ubliic se er vice. Success Succe cesss in in recruitment r cr re crui uitm tmen entt an and d se eleecttion in turn, d depends epeends on many factorsA ep including the provision of adequate pay pa and an nd benefits, bene be n fits, satisfactory saatiisfactory working condittio ions,, and the th he im implemenD g conditions, tation selection procedures taatio on of of application ap n and d se sele lect ctio ion n pr proced edur ures es tthat hatt ar ha are no nott ov overly cumA The bersome, complicated, public personnel complicatted ed,, or lengthy. len engt gth hy. T hee pu ubl blicc p errso onn nnel el office must M also develop and implement recruitment and selection on n strategies str trategies that are well designed and carefully targeted to meet organizational needs. This chapter reviews public sector recruitment and selection procedures and the kinds of challenges2that those systems have faced over the years. 0 We begin by reminding the reader that many jobs in the pub0 lic sector are still filled on the basis of political patronage. These are 8 a particular partisan affiliation, as usually higher-level jobs for which determined by elected political leadership, may be seen as essential for T performance of the duties assigned. Top-level department and agency S Most public sector positions, executives typically fit this category. however, fall under the rules and regulations of merit systems, as we have seen, and those are the positions with which we are concerned in this chapter. Traditional merit systems have focused on the identification of highly qualified employees through the use of open and competitive examination processes. Centralized oversight of those systems is necessary to ensure uniformity across the government and fairness ■ 69 ■ 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 70 CHAPTER FOUR in the screening of applicants. But as the size and scope of government expands, this oversight becomes increasingly difficult to accomplish efficiently and effectively. Long delays become common, and questions may be raised about the extent to which centralized authorities can determine what constitutes effective selection criteria for managers at the front lines of individual agencies with unique missions, goals, and clients. For the past 30 or more years, reforms have focused on finding ways to bring increased flexibility to selection processes, while at the same time, not sacrificing values such as equity and fairness. It is also true, especially in recent years, that deteriorating pay and benefits as well as public antipathy have done much to make jobs in the public service less attractive for many S people than they would otherwise be. Many of today’s potential applicants, particularly those with M skills that are in high demand or those with higher education look to I and offer high-prestige careers. the private sector for jobs that pay well As a consequence, recruitment efforts T have become increasingly important in the public sector for those types of jobs. Recruitment of H individuals for lower-level positions requiring less skill and education require announcements may requ uire little l ttle more than li than the he publication pub b,li lication on off jo job b anno nounceme ment nts in n media me edia outlets o tletss or on an ou n organizational organizat ationaal website, webs bsitte, but it is no no longer lo ong nger the th he case se that th hat public publlic managers manag ger ers can settle seettle for for a passive passsivve (announce-and-wait) (an anno noun unce ce-aand nd-w waitt) A thatt requ important require aapproach ppr pro oach to filling fillin fi ng impor r ta tant positions posit itions uir ire high hi levels of skill, skkilll, education, ed duccat atio i n,, and and n training. g. D major public personnel management A ma majo jor task ta confronting conffro onti ting ng p ubli ub licc pe pers rson onne nell ma mana nage geme ment nt iis, s, thereA ionn techniques fore, to develop recruitment recruittme ment nt and and selection sel e ec ecti tecchn hniq que u s that: that at:: (1) (1) take a management point of view by actively effortts to acquire, M supporting efforts develop, and retain the human resources needed by government, and (2) are in conformance with merit principles and meet the standards 2 set by existing equal employment opportunity (EEO) and antidiscrimination law and policy. In doing0so, we must remember that although recruitment and selection are conceptually discrete steps, they 0 for public sector employment are in practice inseparable. Recruitment generally refers to efforts to encourage 8 people to apply for available positions. Selection refers to the decision to hire, on the basis of demT onstrated merit, a particular individual or individuals. As the National S Commission on the Public Service chaired by Paul Volcker in 1989 noted, complicated and slow selection procedures undermine recruitment efforts because potential candidates “see getting government jobs as an exercise in frustration.” On the other side of the coin, ineffective recruitment may leave the employer in the position of having to select from a list of applicants that does not have enough qualified individuals on it. Important positions may remain open for a long time as a consequence. 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 71 RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION In its guidance to state agencies, the State of Georgia’s central personnel agency, known as the Georgia State Merit System, identifies the following as important considerations in the formulation of an effective recruitment program: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ The program should permit employers to identify recruitment sources, such as universities and trade schools, that are the most likely to provide enough applicants with the needed skills and abilities. It should be funded and staffed at the levels required to carry out an active recruitment effort. In addition to meeting short-term or immediate needs, the S program should be designed to meet long-term needs by M who will later be able to acquiring entry-level personnel advance and fill more responsible positions. I Recruitment must be seenTas the initial step in the selection process and, therefore, it must “ensure compliance with H and guidelines concerning fairexisting federal and state laws ness, ne ess, equal opportunity, oppo op portun unit ity, y and a,nd n . . . minimize min nim imiz i e potential po l adverse adve ad v rs rsee impact im mpa p ct on legally leg le gally protected prrotecteed groups.” grou gr oups ps.” .” The Th he pr program rograam should ld meet the th he public’s p bl pu blic ic’s eexpectation xpec xp ecta tati tion n tthat hat alll ha A will phases phas ph asees of the hiring hiring i process willl be “fair” “faiir” in in the sense that th hat merit values guiding that process meri me r t and EEO EE are the core gu u i id ing g p rocess D (Georgia Merit System, pp. 1–2). (Ge (G eorgia M erit S yste ys tem, m, 1997, 199 997, 7, p p. 1 –2). A M RECRUITMENT: FINDING AND ATTRACTING QUALIFIED APPLICANTS 2 0 As noted above, recruitment for lower-level positions is usually rela0 positions require lower levels of tively simple, especially when such skill and/or education and there 8 are many potential candidates available to compete for open positions. The public employer may need to T of this nature in local media or do little more than advertise positions Swhen the positions at issue require on a designated website. However, higher levels of knowledge, skills, ability, and formal education, recruitment becomes significantly more difficult and important. Efforts must be made to target a more limited pool of qualified individuals and attract them to the public service. Part of that work may also involve initiatives designed to improve the image of the public service as an employer and to make the public sector competitive, particularly for technical and professional occupational categories. Public information 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 72 CHAPTER FOUR and education programs designed to describe the challenges, rewards, and opportunities associated with public service and careers in particular agencies may be productive, particularly if recruiters are prepared to follow up in terms relevant to potential applicants. In addition, internship and co-op programs can be effective. More importantly, however, political leadership must be willing to describe the public service and its functions in positive terms and must back those words with supportive policies and needed resources. In all cases, the public sector organization should carefully consider its recruitment needs and should develop a plan through which accurate job information is readily accessible to all interested parties through a variety of media including targeted publications, S postings, radio and television, and specified websites. The plan should M also identify and establish reliable contacts with productive referral I schools and colleges, employsources, including current employees, ment agencies, and executive searchTfirms, and, of course, it should target and establish contact with applicants who are the most likely H In the next few pages, we deto have needed qualifications and skills. selected recruitment have been scribe sele ected d recruitmen entt st sstrategies raate tegi gies ,tthat h t ha ha h ve b een ee n used ed in the th he public pu ic sector, especially sect ctor, esp peciial a lyy the federal fed ederal sector, seccto tor, to to attract a tr at tracct applicants ap ppl p ican ants ts with wit ith h higher high g er levels eveels of skill skkil ill and and education. e uccat ed ation. A D EARL ARLY LY EFF FFORTS FORTS AT THE FED EDERAL EDE ERAL LEV EVEL VEL A In the early 1980s, the Office of Personnel Management Manageme ment nt (OPM) M had maintained regional information centers where information on positions available within each region was made available. At these centers, job postings were simply 2 printed and placed on bulletin boards. Information on jobs in regions 0 other than the one where ing was made was not available. Effectiveness was limited 0 visit the center during normal because job seekers were required to business hours to view the job postings. Later, OPM began a new 8 initiative known as Career America, through which a collection T of sophisticated brochures describing career opportunities and S service were made available highlighting attractive features of federal to federal agencies at relatively low cost. The agencies, in turn, made the brochures available to the public. Eventually, OPM also provided federal agencies with a service called the Career America Connection, which was “a nationwide automated telephone system that provided quick, easy-to-use, current Federal Employment information 24 hours a day, 7 days a week” (U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1997b, p. 1). 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION 73 In the late 1980s, OPM began to draw upon computer technology for the first time in its recruitment program. The first effort was the initiation of an electronic Federal Job Opportunities Board. This system enabled people with computers and modems to dial into an electronic list of job vacancies available nationwide. Applicants were still required to obtain and complete paper applications that they then would send via al service to a processing center. Yet, this was a significant advancement in that it provided an improved means of making information about federal job opportunities available to the general public— or at least those members of the public that had computer access. By the 1990s, as technology began to improve, OPM set up computerized job information kiosks S in federal buildings nationwide. At these kiosks, job seekers, who perhaps had no computer of their M own, could view and print announcements for jobs they found interI was refined and the use of peresting. Later, as Internet technology sonal computers became increasingly T common, OPM began to make job information available via the World Wide Web. The first step in H a federal job-search website called this direction was the launching of USAJobs (www.usajobs.opm.gov). USAJob o s in 1996 (w www ww.usa sajo jobs b .o o, pm p .g gov o ). ) The The website web bsite provided pro rovi vide d d nana tionwide tion nwiide vacancy vacancy information inf nformaatiion o that tha hatt was wass av available to anyone anyyone with h an an Internet connection. con onne nectio on. Once the th website weebsit itee was was up u and and running, run unn ning ng,, OP OPM M terterAr obtaining minated dial-in system information all minated th the direct di dia iall-iin syst tem fo ffor ob btainin ing g jjob ob b informat tio ion n and d al l computer removed comp co m ut uter er kiosks in n federal federal facilities were rem m oved by 2001. Vacancy D information in nfo orm rmat atio on via thee automated auto toma mateed telephone tele te leph phon onee system sysstem sy em was was maintained maiintained so Aviduaals without that th hat there would bee access acce ac cess ss for for individuals ind ndiv wit itho hout u computer com ompu puter resources and the visually impaired, but the ne llines inees used was in M number of phone radically reduced (Llorens and Kellough, 2007). 2 THE FEDERAL RECRUITMENT ONE0-STOP INITIATIVE 0 updated and revised the USAJobs In August 2003, OPM significantly website to provide one central location from which job seekers could 8 find information on federal employment opportunities and federal T agencies could find potential employees. In recognition of this obS revised site was labeled “Recruitjective, the concept underlying the ment One-Stop.” The technological advancements incorporated into Recruitment One-Stop made it possible for those looking for jobs to actually apply for positions and complete preliminary examinations entirely online. In addition, job seekers were able to build as many as five web-based resumes and store them on the USAJobs website and recruiters from federal agencies can review applicant qualifications (Llorens & Kellough, 2007). 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 74 CHAPTER FOUR OPM invested heavily in advertising the new website through paid advertising, traditional job fairs, and a variety of other means. More than 14.5 million unique hits were registered on the website and job seekers created more than 185,000 resume profiles between its launch date of August 4, 2003 and November 2, 2003. The website provides an array of application tips and tools and can be displayed in Spanish as well as English. Overall, OPM hopes this website will prove to be an effective mechanism for getting the word out about federal job opportunities, will streamline the application and examination process, and will, as a result, significantly reduce the time it takes for agencies to locate and hire exceptional candidates. In recent years, those hopes have been largely Srealized as the USAJobs website has become the central location for information about federal job M opportunities. I T CAMPUS VISITS AND PRESENTATIONS H Although h innovations inn novations such suc uch h as the the USAJobs USA SAJobs web ebsi site te and d Recruitment Recru uit itme m nt , b website On One-Stop ne-St Stop p aree importa important ant new d developments evel ev e op pme ment ntss in emp employee ploye yeee recruitment, r cr re cru uitmentt, direct dire rect contactt between bet etween en employers emplo oyers and and potential pot o en nti t all employees emp mplo loye yeess remains rem main ns aan n im important mportant nt rec recruitment ecrruitment nt strategy strattegy forAmany types es off positions positi tions an and d recruitment The U.S. Office cruitm tmen e t pools. po U.S. General Accounting gO ffice (GAO)) found D in 1990, n 19 990 0, for for example, example, that thatt college col olle lege ge students stu ude dent ntss favor f vo fa vorr personal pers pe rson onal al contacts contacts representatives other with employer represen enta tati tive vess over over A oth ther recruitment reccru ruittme ment methods, met eth hods, and campus interviews and presentations stud uden entt groups M to classes or student are given high marks for effectiveness because they make face-toface meetings with knowledgeable employees possible (U.S. General 2 Brochures such as the Career Accounting Office, 1990, pp. 59-61). America portfolio and electronic media 0 did attract interest, but were judged not to be substitutes for personal contacts. Recruiting videos, 0 for example, were not considered particularly effective, in part, because many students believed they 8 did not provide an accurate description of work and careers in government agencies. Impersonal T prerecorded telephone messages and computer information systems also did not please college students.SBy contrast, career fairs where public employers set up booths on university campuses and collect resumes provide the kind of face-to-face recruitment students often find valuable. Such strategies allow students to have discussions with representatives of public agencies, but the approach is expensive for the employer and is used in a limited fashion. A number of campuses now have specified contact persons available to answer questions about employment opportunities in federal, state, or local government. 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION 75 STUDENT HIRING/INTERNSHIP PROGRAMS Another way of helping people become familiar with job and career opportunities in the public service is to hire students on a part-time basis. Here, an example is provided by OPM’s Student Educational Employment Program. This program, established in 1994, offers federal employment opportunities to students in accredited high schools, technical and vocational training centers, and two- or fouryear colleges and universities. It has two components, the Student Temporary Employment Program (STEP) and the Student Career Experience Program (SCEP). Under STEP, students’ work does not have to be directly related to theirS academic programs and career goals. The SCEP, however, is intended to provide work experience that is directly related to academic and M career interests, and students “may be noncompetitively converted to I term, career or career-conditional appointments following completion of their academic and work expeT rience requirements” (U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 2012a). H According to OPM: IIn n Fiscal Fis iscal Year 1996, 199 996, 6, there there re were were ,34,578 34 78 participants par arti tici cipa pants in the Student Stud St uden ent Educational E ducc at a io o nal Employment Em nt Pro Program. o gr gram am. The Th Temporar Temp Te mpor orar ar y EmployEmpl Em ploy oyment Component Com mponeent had 26,045 26, 6,045 (75 (7 75 percent) perc pe rcen nt) participants; parti ticipa pant nts; s the he Career Caree eer Experience Expe eri r en nce component had had d 8,533 8,5 5A 33 (25 25 percent) participants. particip i ants. The Th number nu umb mber of female le participants [was] 19,852 (57 (57 5 percent of program D min participants). particip pa ipants). There The here were wer eree 16,540 16,5 16 ,540 40 minorities inor orit itie ies . . . [and] [and [a n ] Blacks Blac Bl accks k had A 2 students the largest representation repres esentaati tion with wit ith h 10,002 10 stu ude den ntss (29 (29 9 percent peerc rcen ent . . . ). the There were 1,058 58 careerr or career-conditional ca areer-condi l conversions conversi sion ons from fr M ditional Career Experience component in C E i i FY 96 (U.S. (U S Office Offi off Personnel P l Management, 2012b). 2 Management Fellowship (PMF) Internships like the Presidential Program coordinated by OPM also 0 may be effective recruiting devices. Formerly known as the Presidential Management Internship Program, 0 is designed to attract highly qualiand established in 1977, the PMF fied graduate students. Students 8 are nominated by their schools and undergo a competitive selection process. Once they graduate, those T selected are given the opportunity for challenging assignments includS ing rotational responsibilities, mentoring, and attendance in development seminars. Those who successfully complete the program are eligible for conversion to permanent positions. Examples of this kind of approach are also found at the state level. For example, The Illinois Commission on the Future of the Public Service recommended in 1991 that the state expand all its internship and cooperative education programs because they “provide the greatest potential for increasing the pool of undergraduate and graduate students interested in public 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 76 CHAPTER FOUR service” (Illinois Commission on the Future of the Public Service, 1991, p. 32). Currently, the Illinois Department of Natural Resources offers internships to college and graduate students in natural resources management, conservation law enforcement, environmental education, and other areas. The department’s programs “allow students to obtain practical experience and meet hands-on training requirements necessary to earn their degrees” (Illinois Department of Natural Resources, 1998, p. 1). Another Illinois initiative is the Prescott E. Bloom Internships in Government Program. In one, college juniors, seniors, and graduate students “work in the Governor’s Office and in various agencies under the Governor’s jurisdiction learning, first hand, the operations of Illinois State Government.” In another, college S graduates spend a year assigned on a rotational basis to various deM partments in the governor’s office and to an executive branch agency I (Office of the Governor, State of Illinois, 1997). A similar program is offered by the Mayor’s Office in the City of Chicago and in several T other large municipalities around the country. H , INV NVESTMENTS VES ESTM TME ENTS TS IN N CON ONTINUOUS NTINUOUS TR RAINING AINI N NG AN AND A D EDU DUCATION DUCA CATI TION ON A recruitment One O nee way to reduce red duce pressure pressu sure on external recruit itm mentt is, iin n effect, eff fe fect ct, to create crea ate conditions con ndi diti t ons under undeer which an internal recruitment recru ruitment t dimension is D adde added ed to tthe he m mix. ix. Thiss m may ayy b bee do done ne b byy an anti anticipating tici cipa pati ting ng h human uman um an rresources esources es Ag and needs and by systematically systemati tica call llyy upgrading upgr up grad adin ing an nd changing chan ch ang ging ng the he skills skills profiles of those who already work forM public agencies. Th This is aapproach pproach applies particularly to situations where certain skills are already in short supply or are likely to be in the foreseeable future. Skills upgrad2 ing programs like tuition reimbursement for job-related education and training, sabbaticals to pursue advanced degrees, and specialized 0 training opportunities may be used in the fields where they are most 0 most in recruitment and reneeded and by agencies that will benefit tention. Education and training of this 8 kind also could be designed to help employees work their way up a career ladder from, for example, T paraprofessional to professional positions. Another goal might be to improve the basic skills of those who S would otherwise not be qualified for lower level jobs. Along these lines, OPM has for several years operated a series of initiatives designed to strengthen federal human resources development efforts that covered the following: (1) probationary period training for new employees, (2) basic skills and literacy training, (3) continuing technical/professional education and training, (4) retraining for occupational changes, (5) participation in 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION 77 professional associations, and (6) academic degree training. OPM also supports training and development programs for supervisors and managers, and it helps federal agencies to assess their needs in these areas (U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1992). ADMINISTRATION OF RECRUITMENT PROGRAMS On all levels of government, complaints about procedural rigidities, over-centralized and unresponsive personnel offices, and a widespread lack of organizational attention to recruitment are commonplace. S reveal that relatively successStudies of the recruitment process ful programs share certain characteristics. First, and probably most M important, top-level management must actively support and particiI and evaluation phases of agency pate in the planning, implementation, recruitment programs. Second, recruitment activity should be decenT tralized in the sense that line managers are directly involved and have H delegated been d eleegated considerable authority to plan and carry out recruiting initiatives under offer jobs in nitiati tives and, und der some somee conditions, cond co d,it itio i nss, to oo ffer ff er job bs to highly hig ighl hlyy qualiqu ual aliified fie d candidates cand ndid idattes e without wittho hout waiting waiiti ting ng for or the the aapproval ppro pp rova vall off a central centtraal personnel per erso sonn nnee managers must work closely agency. Third, ag Thiird,, line ma Th mana nage gers rs m ust wo ork clo lose sely ly with wit ith h personnel pers pe rson onne nell specialspec ecia iall A of recruitment strategies keyed and implementation ists in the design is de labor to specific spe p ci cific fic aagency gency ne needs and a d la an abo bD r market maarket et conditions. con onditi t on o s.. Fourth, Fou urt r h, those actually should ac ctu ual a ly doing doi oing the recruitment recru uit itme ment nt in in the th fie field ld sho houl uld d ha have ve the the necessary Abee we technical resources and techni nica call support, supp su ppor ort, t, b well ttrained rain ra ined ed and and fully ful ully l informed M and possess th opportunities, the about agency needs and opportunities he aauthority uthority required to make commitments on behalf of the employer. Fifth, appropriate media and technologies should be available to support all 2 phases of the recruitment and selection process. 0 0 8 , AND PROBLEMS SELECTION: METHODS, ISSUES T movement of the 19th Century A hallmark of the civil service reform S a focus on the methods used to and the Pendleton Act of 1883 was select people for public service jobs and to determine who should be promoted. The intensive concentration on both initial selection and promotion was a direct result of the movement’s effort to eliminate patronage or spoils as an organizing principle of public personnel administration. Thus, traditional merit systems emphasize political neutrality and objectivity at every stage of the selection process. To achieve that goal, the selection process had to be designed and controlled by 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 78 CHAPTER FOUR personnel specialists housed in central personnel agencies or independent commissions. Centralized oversight and control were seen as essential to ensure the realization of merit principles. Civil service selection procedures that evolved from the early reform movement stress measuring a candidate’s ability to perform a specific job. To make this determination, one or more tests or examinations are used to evaluate the qualifications of job applicants. Once these tests are scored, the scores are used to rank those who apply. Typically a cut or pass point is determined that separates those who are qualified and those who do not possess minimum qualifications. Those with scores above the pass point are ranked according to their scores on a list of eligibles, that is, a S list of all who are determined by the examination process to be eligible for employment. Selection rules M generally require that employees be chosen from among those with I which required selection from the highest scores. The “rule of three,” among those with the top three scores, T dated from the time of the Grant Administration, was incorporated into the Pendleton Act, and H in relatively recent years. was commonly used until it was relaxed Technically, capacity qualifications Tech chniccally, all measurements mea easu sureme ment n s ,of o cap apacitty or qua ali l ficatio ions ns are re considered necessarily writcon nsid ideereed tests, teests, and d they th do o not no ot ne nece cesssarilly involvee taking ta ng a writ t(pencil-and-paper) example, ten n (pencill an ndd-pa paper)) eexamination. xamina nation. Fo Forr ex exam mpl ple, ssome om me tests test te s s measure m asur me ure A physical abilities phys ph ysic i al abili liti t es and others oth theers are conducted cond ducte t d orally. oral ally ly. Tests T sts can also Te alsso be al “assembled” sense “assem embled ed” in the sen nse s that people toge gether in one location Dcome together for the th examination, exam ex amin nation, whereas whe h reas as others oth ther erss are ar “unassembled,” “una “u nass ssem emb bled ed,” ,” meaning mea eani niing that individual basis orr pe perhaps they are administered on aan n in indi divi vid dA ual al bas asis o per rhap aps th they ey consist simply of a review of an applicant’s M dossier. The mix off ttests ests es ts and examinations used will vary, depending on the skills, knowledge, and abilities required. The tests applied by public employers usually will 2 involve some combination of the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0 Assessments of minimum qualifications requirements Evaluations of training, education, 0 and experience Written tests of knowledge and 8 analytic skills Job performance tests and simulations T Oral examinations by individual examiners or boards S Background checks or investigations Medical and physical examinations In civil service selection, the goal is to determine if an applicant has the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other traits deemed necessary or important to successful performance in a particular job. The content of most selection tests should be based on the results of careful job analysis. Although most civil service tests in the United States 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION 79 are geared to the requirements of particular positions, some are intended to assess the likelihood that an applicant will have a successful career in a variety of occupations or administrative roles. These types of tests are most often used for entry-level professional positions, and the questions “do not require applicants to possess knowledge or experience that can only be acquired on the job” (U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board, 1990). They emphasize general traits such as verbal skills and reasoning abilities that are believed to be closely linked to performance. S M From a technical standpoint, the purpose of selection tests is to proI accurate prediction of how applivide the employer with a reasonably cants are likely to perform in specific T jobs. In other words, the problem is to construct tests that are valid. As Norma Riccucci stresses, “Test H to conceptualize and operationalvalidation continues to be relied on ize merit meerit . . .” (Riccucci, (Riccuc ucci ci,, 1991, 19 991 91,, p..,80). 80). A valid vali lid d test te measures mea e suress only onl what wha hatt TEST VALIDITY it it is is intended inttend ded to measure meaasure (such me (ssuc uch h ass knowledge kno nowl w ed dge of labor labo borr law w or or accountaccou ount nting principles). principl plees). ). Tests Tessts must also al bee reliable reli liab ablee or or consistent cons n isste tent nt in in their theiir results. th resu sullts A ling for All All otherr things t in th ings being beiing g equal equall (controlling (controll for other othe h r potential pottenttia iall sources of variation), test twice (or variaati tion o ), ) if a person peers rson takes theD (o a hundred times), and itt is reliable, scores reeli liab a lee, the scor ores sshould houl ho uld d be rroughly ough ou ghly ly tthe he ssame. amee. If am If the the scores scores are Areliab significantly signiificantly different, different nt,, the the test te t is is unreliable unr un ablee and and ass a result, resu re sult lt, of undeterminable validity. M The validation methods generally accepted by specialists in testing are (1) criterion-related validity, (2) construct validity, and 2 validation strategies correspond (3) content validity. These three to those used in social science measurement generally and were de0 scribed by the American Psychological Association as early as 1966 0 Psychological Tests and Manuals. in its Standards for Educational and The term “test” includes all examination methods described earlier 8 including oral examinations, written tests, physical ability tests, and T evaluations of training and experience. It is also possible to speak of S a test or examination process “face validity” or the extent to which appears on its face to be valid, but that concept is of limited utility. It is useful if face validity is present, but it is insufficient since procedures may appear to be valid while in actuality they are not. Criterion-related validity requires that test scores be correlated with a criterion accepted as a reasonable indicator of job ability. Typically under this approach, actual job performance is the criterion used and criterion validity is established in two ways. In the first approach, 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 80 CHAPTER FOUR known as predictive validity, test scores of those hired are correlated with subsequent performance measures for the same individuals. Assuming that these performance ratings are accurate (and this is not an insignificant assumption as we will see later), a valid test is one that produces scores that are positively correlated with performance. In other words, test scores of job applicants accurately predict subsequent performance. A major limitation of this approach, however, is that those who do not pass the test (or receive a passing score but are not hired) are given no opportunity to perform. No organization is likely to ignore test scores when hiring workers to validate the test. To deal with that one limitation, a second approach to criterion-related validity, known as concurrent validity, was developed. This approach involves administering a S proposed new test to incumbent employees and comparing their scores M concurrently to their performance ratings. Again, test scores should be positively associated with performanceI ratings if the test is valid. Critics argue that the concurrent validation T technique promotes the creation of selection tests that overemphasize the characteristics of incumbent workers, not the actual requirements H of positions. Construct validity, second general Con nstru uct validity y, the the se eco cond n ,g enerral a approach app ppro roac a h to establishing estab bli lish shing g validity, bee de designed measure certain testt val alid i it ity, rrequires eq quires th that tests ts b desi sign gneed tto o measur uree cert rtaain geng nge intelligence are eral al traits or cconstructs, onst on s ruct cts, s, such aass intel elliige genc n e or o ccreativity, reat ativ ivit ity, y, which whi hich ch ar re A d wi presumed demonstrated bee associated with p ressumed orr de dem monstrat ated ed to b ith ssatisfactory atis ti factory job job performance. measures the form man ance.. Wh When the test tes est accurately D th construct at issue, construct performance, and tthe hee co ons nstrruct is in fact faact associated ass ssoc ocia iate ted d positively posi po sittive vely ly with wit ith h jo job b pe perf rfor orrmance, Aty. Of the test is said to have construct con onst stru ruct ct validity. val alid idit Of course, co our ursse, these thes th esee connections con co nnections can sometimes be tenuous. For example, oft ften en be be raised M questions can often about the extent to which a test is a valid measure of a given psychological construct, and, as was the case with criterion-related validity, 2 as the measure of job perforthe entire assessment is only as good mance used. A test for a legal position 0 could provide a good example. Assuming a certain logical frame of mind that incorporated a facility for legal reasoning was shown to 0be positively associated with job performance, a test would have construct 8 validity to the extent that it accurately measured that type of mental capacity. Construct validity T often relies on constructs that are hard to define, such as intelligence, so convincing empirical evidence ofSassociations between scores on measures of constructs and elements of job performance is often hard to find, and as a result, this approach to validity is controversial and usually is thought to be of limited utility. Content validity, the third conceptualization of measurement validity, is established when the content of a test closely matches the content of a job. Examples are written job knowledge tests that ask 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION 81 about knowledge actually required on the job and performance tests in which the actual duties are carried out, as in typing, driving, or welding tests. A content validity approach is attractive to employers because it is conceptually simple, and it avoids problems associated with strategies that depend on measures of employee performance. As a result, this is the most commonly used approach to assessing examination validity. However, questions may be asked about how scores are interpreted in hiring decisions and the extent to which job analysis accurately reflects conditions faced by those holding the positions in question (Riccucci, 1991, pp. 81–83). S VALIDITY AND EQUAL EMPLOYMENT M OPPORTUNITY I discriminate among job applicants In principle, selection tests should only on the basis of their relative T ability to perform the work in question. In Griggs v. Duke Power Company (1971), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that if a selection testHhad an adverse or disparate impact with regard validregar ard to race,, color, col olor o , religion, reli re ligion on, natio iona nall origin, orig gin, and an nd it itss va ali lid d , orr national ity it had h d nott been established, ha esttab ablished,, its its usee constituted cons co nsttitu ute ted unlawful unlawf wfu ul discrimination dis isccriminat atio ion n under Title the Civil Rights 1964. Off co course, und der Ti T tlee VI VII off th he Civi il Right ts Ac Actt of 1 964. 96 4. O cour urse se,, the th Equal Eq Employment Opportunity extended Title Employme ment nt O pportu tun nity Act Actt ofA f 1972 72 ext ten end ded d Titl le VI VIII ccoverage overage to “go “governments,” “governmental agencies,” and “political subdiviove vern rnments,” “g “ overnmental ,” D sions” making siion ns” m akking the principles prin nci cipl ples es articulated art rtic icul ulat ated ed iin n Griggs Grig Gr iggs gs applicable app ppli lica caable to the public publ blic sector. In practical prac acti tica call terms, term te rms, s, this tA hiss meant mean me nt that th t if a selection seele lecction test was challenged on EEO grounds andM could not be validated, validat ated ed,, it it had to be discarded by the employer and replaced with one that could be validated using an accepted methodology. 2 1970s, the Equal Employment During the late 1960s and early Opportunity Commission, the U.S. 0 Department of Labor, and Civil Service Commission each issued guidelines on selection procedures. Their guidelines concerning how0to demonstrate the job-relatedness of selection methods were not the 8 same, and efforts to get uniform guidelines failed. The principal issue was a disagreement between the T EEOC and the Civil Rights Commission on the one hand and the S and Justice on the other. In late Civil Service Commission, Labor, 1976, the latter agencies agreed on and adopted what were called the Federal Executive Agency or FEA Guidelines, but the Civil Rights Commission and the EEOC were opposed, and the EEOC retained the guidelines it had adopted in 1970 (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1970; Federal Register, 1977). The EEOC guidelines were the most difficult to satisfy. 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 82 CHAPTER FOUR The following were the principal points of disagreement: ■ ■ ■ ■ The EEOC guidelines did not offer a concrete definition of adverse impact but indicated that its existence would be determined by comparing the rates at which different applicant groups pass a particular selection procedure. The FEA guidelines, on the hand, did set forth a definition of sorts: a “substantially different selection rate . . . which works to the disadvantage of members of a racial, sex, or ethnic group.” A rule-of-thumb for determining if selection rates were substantially different was provided. This so-called 80 percent rule stated that if the selection rate for a group was within 4 ⁄ 5 of the rate forSthe group with the highest rate, the enforcement agencyM will generally not consider adverse impact to exist. I The EEOC guidelines required validation of every component of the selection process T used to fill a position. In practice, this meant making investigations of adverse impact for H all al ll examination exxam a ination components even when the examination as a , im wholee did not have wh have an an adverse adversse impact. ad impa pactt. In contrast, contrras ast, t the he FEA FEA guidelines gu uid idel elin nes stated state ted d that adverse adv dveersee impact imp mpac act was w s to bee determined wa detterm de rmin ned for each job category. If for the th he overall ovverall selection sele se lect ction n process proc pr o es ess fo o r ch j ob c a tegor ory. I f no A overall was found, there was overal ll adverse impact im wa no obligation Dn components. to o validate valid idate the various variou va ouss selection s le se lect ctio ion comp co mpon o en ents ts. If it was, was, then the h n to eeach ea ch h component nt would wou ould ld have hav avee A o be analyzed, anal alyz yzed ed, and an nd any any having adverse impact would wou ould ld have havve to be vaalida date ted d if the he employer emp mplo loyer Mbe validated wanted using t d to t continue ti i them. th Whereas the EEOC expressed a preference for criterionrelated validity, the FEA pointed 2 out, “Generally accepted principles of the psychological profession do not recognize 0 such preference, but contemplate the use of criterion-related, content, or construct validity0strategies as appropriate.” In addition to other problems discussed earlier, criterion-related 8 validity studies are often difficult to conduct because small T enough people in single job jurisdictions do not test or hire classifications to give a statistical S sample large enough for meaningful analysis comparing test scores and performance measures. In large jurisdictions, the sample is usually big enough only in a few classifications. The EEOC required that an employer, while in the process of validating a selection procedure, be able to show that an alternative procedure with less adverse impact does not exist. 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 83 RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION ■ The main objection to this standard was that it could mean an endless “cosmic” search for alternatives with less adverse impact. The FEA guidelines stated that in the course of a validity study, the employer should try to find and use procedures that have as little adverse impact as possible. Once a good faith effort had been made and the chosen procedure had been shown to be valid, the employer did not have to search further for alternatives. Finally, the EEOC guidelines required that tests be validated for each minority group to ensure that differential validity did not exist. Differential validity is a situation in which S validity for different race, a test has significantly different sex, or ethnic groups. Clearly, M to use a test that routinely overestimates or underestimates job performance for one I unfair. The FEA guidelines were group or another would be less demanding because they T simply recommended that data be compiled separately for all groups to determine test H fairness. , After A fterr extensive extensivve negotiations, neg ne gottiat atiionss, agreement agreeem ag emen entt on on Uniform Unif Un iform m Guidelines Guiideelin Gu ine Employee forr Em fo Empl plooyee ee SSelection electi tioon Procedures Procedu durres finally final fin ally ly was wass reached rea each c ed in in 1978 19 978 (Federal (Fe F de dera ra Register, 1979). followed R egister, 1 979 79). In general, gene ge neral, l, they the h yA follow owed d the the FEA FEA guidelines gui uide deli line ness cclosely. los osel elyy The Uniform regulations, T he Unif for orm Guidelines Guid del e iness are not regulations n , but they have had a DC major because Supreme Court m ajo or iimpact mpaact c becau use the he S upre up reme me ourt ou rt has has said sai aid d that t at as th as the th he administrative is str trat ative iinterpretations nterpretatio ons of tthe he eenforcing nA nf orcing or ng agencies agenc n ie ies they they are are entitled to “great deference.” Nonetheless, Non onet ethe heleess ss, when wh legal l disputes disp pute tes arise, aris ar isee, the courts M tleggtavalidity make about k the th final fi l determinations d t i ti b t test lidit requirements i t and d whether or not an employer has met them. Apart from the question of2 costs to employers, the Uniform Guidelines have been criticized as technically unsound in some 0 and requiring excessive record respects, unclear in many others, keeping. Nevertheless, efforts to change them have met strong political 0 opposition. In any case, the reality is that against a long history of 8 relatively little pressure for test validation, public personnel agencies T of having to validate a wide variety were suddenly placed in the position of selection tests for EEO reasons. S Meeting the full requirements of the Uniform Guidelines is now and will continue to be a challenge to public employers. The technical, organizational, and political barriers to fully realizing this aspect of the merit principle are formidable. However distant the ideal, test validation is now fully established as an important objective for public personnel systems and is necessary for each of the selection criteria outlined in the following sections. 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 84 CHAPTER FOUR MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS The reason for imposing minimum qualifications such as extent and type of education, training, physical abilities, and experience required is to screen out applicants who are realistically not likely to be able to carry out the tasks and responsibilities associated with a position. Examples would be requiring applicants for legal positions to have a degree from an accredited school of law, requiring firefighters to be able to lift and carry a certain weight, and asking that applicants for senior administrative positions have prior experience in equivalent or related positions. Residency in the employing state or locality may also be required. The key standard for minimum S qualifications is that they are actually essential to job performance and do not arbitrarily deny perMa chance to compete. Until resons who might be able to do the job cently, little attention was paid to establishing the validity of minimum I qualifications, and the personnel technicians’ best judgment sufficed. T For predicting applicants’ relative ability to perform, minimum qualH diploma of janitors, truck ifications such as requiring a high school machine drivers, and n m achine operators ope p rators are at, best questionable. questionable. As a practical p actical pr matter, convincing matt tter er,, public pu ublic ic employers employe yerrs must musst now be prepared pre repaare red d to t offer off ffer er con onvincing i evidence the evid den nce of of validity, vaali lidi d ty, because be th he courts co ourts ts are are routinely rou outi tin nely ly striking str trik ikin ing do down wn minimum qualifications that bee sho shown mini mi nimu m m qu ualifi ficcation ns th tha at ccannot ann an nott A b hown n tto o be llogically ogic ical a ly rrelated elat el ated d to o thee demands dem mands d of a particular paart r icular job. Currently, the he trend is to remove De validated minimum mini imu mum m requirements requ uir i ementts that thaat cannot cann ca nnot ot be b vali va lida date ted d and and to add add flexibility flex fl e ibility ex Ation ffor allowing substitution off ed education experience by all llow owing for f r substitu fo tution on o educ ucat orr ex expe periien nce up up to a certain point (and vice versa), versa)), and and d by by including incl i g the h catchall catcha hall ll phrase, phr hrase, “or Mludin any equivalent combination i l bi i off training i i and d experience.” i ” Some minimum qualifications may be imposed as a matter of law and social policy. Residence, age, and2citizenship status requirements, though not necessarily related to job performance, may serve wider 0 It is not unusual for police depolitical, social, or economic purposes. 0 reside in the city or county partments to require that their officers where they work to build effective8community relations. National child labor laws were passed to protect children from exploitation by T 13 year old is not eligible for employers, and even the most talented a computer programmer position in S a local government. In 1978, the Supreme Court ruled that New York State could make U.S. citizenship a requirement for police positions, on grounds that policy making is the exclusive responsibility of citizens and the exercise of discretion by police officers is a form of policy making (Foley v. Connelie, 1978). These types of requirements are fixed by federal, state, or local laws, so the personnel agency has no discretion in their application beyond determining whether or not to argue for changes in the law. 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 85 RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION PREVIOUS TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE Evaluations of training and experience may be used in combination with written or oral examinations to generate a more complete evaluation of applicants’ knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs). In other cases, written and oral examinations may not be practical, and the evaluation of training and experience as reflected in an applicant’s resume constitutes the entire examination. This, as noted earlier, would be an example of an unassembled examination because candidates do not gather in one place to sit for a written test. In some cases, suitable written tests may not exist or may be redundant because the applicants Shave already passed examinations for licenses or degrees needed to practice their profession (for example, law, medicine, engineering, M social work). Experience has shown that many highly qualified persons I will not apply for government jobs if they have to take a written test, believing that their academic T degrees, professional credentials and licenses, and experience should H be enough to demonstrate their competence. Unassembled examinations are often used in the federal in some cases for entryservice, , entryy, level professional positions, leve le vel p roffessional p osiitiions ns, and d some so e use se is is made de of of them theem in th in state st and an nd local loca call governments. gove go vernme men nts. Evaluation Evaalu luaatio on of training train ning g and and experience, expe ex periien nce ce, plus plus us an an oral or examination, exam minati tion, iss a combination com ombi bina nation oA commonly com ommo monl nlyy found fou fo und d on on all all levels lev evel elss of o government. gove go v rn nme m nt. The and based T he evaluation ev on off training trai tr aini ning ng D nd eexperience xper xp erieenc ncee is b ased as ed on on a more orr less understanding off thee KSAs less thorough und nderrsttan andi ding ng A KS SAs A required req equ uire red d by a position. position Applicants are ranked according d by by trained traiined d examiners g to to the th extent to M which these KSAs, hi h they h have h h SA a process that h is i inevitably i i bl judgmental. j d l Many personnel experts believe that the most effective way of minimizing the subjective content of2the evaluation process is to use the job element method. Job elements are KSAs determined through job 0 analysis to be significant requirements for successful performance. 0 ranked using various types of eviUsing this method, candidates are dence determined to be acceptable 8 for showing relative competence in the different job elements. T S WRITTEN TESTS Written tests are extensively used in the public sector to measure job knowledge or skills. Personnel agencies may construct tests or purchase them from consulting or other organizations such as the International Personnel Management Association. Small jurisdictions typically do not have the expertise or financial resources needed to 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 86 CHAPTER FOUR develop and validate their own written tests. Multiple-choice tests are most commonly used. Essay-type examinations are rare, primarily because they are difficult to construct, take a long time to grade, and are open to the interpretations and biases of the readers. Despite problems associated with validity and adverse impact, written tests are likely to continue as the dominant way of rating applicants for a large variety of civil service positions. For personnel departments and agencies, they are administratively convenient and provide a quantitative and seemingly objective basis for ranking candidates. This does not mean that they are equally popular with agency management and job applicants, however. Commenting on OPM’s then S new written test for entr ylevel professional positions (Administrative Careers with America or M ACWA), the Merit Systems Protection Board (MSPB) concluded in I to be an efficient and inexpen1990 that these tests had the potential sive way of making selections when T an agency hired a large number of employees from among a large number of applicants (U.S. Merit H 1994, however, the GAO had Systems Protection Board, 1990). By concluded d that th hat this was not not the th he case ca ,because becau use s “agencies “ag agen encies said said they th hey have havve generally alternative hiring methods gen nerall l y found foun nd altern native hi iriing gm etho et h ds d better better meet meeet their theeir needs” (U.S. 1994, According (U U.S . . General G nerall Accounting Ge Acccounti Ac ting n Office, Offi ficce, 199 94, p. p 3). ). A ccor o di ding ng tto o th the GAO: GAO GA O: A Agency hiring h ir irii ng officials said they prefer other hiring methods to Dve tthat ACWA AC CWA ffor or sseveral everal re reasons. eassons. Th Theyy b believe elieve el hatt us ha usin using i g AC ACWA WA cer certificates r ti tific ficat attes e is m more oree time-consuming tim ti me-consumi ming than tha han n using usin us ing g ot other ther hi hiring ng m methods. etthods ds. Ag Agen Agencies enciies A n after receive ACWA certific certificates ficat ates es from fro rom m OPM OPM soon aftter they theyy aree requested, reequ ques ested, M weeks to (1) contactt th but the agencies may need/take several tthee ccanandidates; (2) receive and review their resumes; (3) interview them; and (4) verify past employment, education, and experience. Although these steps are required when agencies 2 use other hiring methods, they can often be completed earlier in the process. (pp. 3–4) 0 The GAO noted other problems with the ACWA as a 0 recruitment-selection device, including the following: ■ ■ ■ 8 Applicants who had lost interest in federal employment failed T or to decline consideration to respond to agencies’ inquiries for jobs, further slowing the process. S Under the conditions imposed by the rule of three and veterans’ preference, agencies were having difficulty meeting affirmative action goals for women through ACWA certificates. Most of the applicants found their experience with the ACWA frustrating, and the GAO’s survey revealed that 85 percent of the respondents were dissatisfied with some aspect of the process. 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 87 RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION ■ More than half of the respondents to the GAO survey thought their chances of getting a federal job were outstanding or good after getting their scores because they had not been given much information about hiring patterns which should have revealed that a minute percentage of those with passing scores are hired; over a two-year period, 300,000 exams were given, there were more than 182,000 passing scores, and 3,228 applicants were hired (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1994, pp. 4–5). A clear indication of the extent to which federal agencies in the early 1990s preferred alternatives to ACWA hiring is provided by SScholar Program, federal agencies Table 4.1. Under an Outstanding could hire candidates with a 3.50 M or better grade point average or who graduated in the top 10 percent of their class. Those individuals were I not required to take the ACWA test. Under Veterans Readjustment T to hire eligible veterans noncomAppointments, agencies were able petitively. Temporary employeesH could be hired for up to four years without OPM annually. witho out O PM approval, with appointments being renewed annually , genccies often GAO permanent posiThe G Th AO O noted att the the time tim ime that th agencies age ofte of ten n filled filleed pe p rm man anen ent po posi sitions temporary employees order up the hiring protion ti ons wi with th tem emporaar y emplo loye yees in n or orde derr tto o sspeed peed pe du p th he hi iri ring n p roro escape cess, esca ce ape limits lim imits on permanent per e ma mane nentt employment mploym ymen entt levels, leevells,, and and to “hire “hire re a Aemp sselected elected employee emp mployee who could not be reached on an OPM certificate” (U.S. 1994, Additional (U.S (U S. General Gene Ge nera r l Accounting Acco ounting ng Office, Offi ffice cD , 19 1994 94, p. p 6). 6).. A d ittio dd iona naal flexibility through under wass aavailable wa vaiila labl ble also thr hrough gh excepted exc xcep epteeA d appointments appo poin ntm tmen entts u nder nd er Schedules Sch hedules A, A include ACWA occupations. B, and C, which could co oul uld d in incl clud udee positions posi po sition ons in tthe he ACW CWA A oc o cupations M Finally, positions could be filled through reassignments, reFinally reassignment ntts ttransfers, ransfers re instatements, and promotions into ACWA occupations without taking or passing the ACWA (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1994, 2 pp. 6–7). Given this experience, OPM decided to deemphasize ACWA 0 examination processes. in 1994 in favor of more decentralized 0 8 By ACWA: Fiscal Years 1991 and 1992 Table 4.1 Hires into Occupations Covered T Type of Appointment Number of Appointments S ACWA 2,797 Outstanding Scholar and Other Direct Hire Veterans Readjustment Temporary Excepted Internal Placements 8,905 1,194 3,733 5,574 15,002 Source: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1994. 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 88 CHAPTER FOUR PERFORMANCE TESTS Simply stated, a performance test asks the applicant to perform essential tasks related to job performance; the test simulates major facets of the job. Theoretically, all kinds of knowledge, skills, and abilities could be tested using performance tests, but they are most likely to be used to evaluate skills such as typing speed and accuracy, operating vehicles and machinery, and doing computational tasks. Simulating complex jobs and situations is technically difficult and expensive. As computer technologies and software become more sophisticated, it is probable that more complex mixes of knowledge, skills, and abilities will be evaluated using performance tests, such S as those now being used in simulators to test pilots’ responses to a range of situations they will (or M might) face in real life. In comparison with the other Ikinds of tests, performance tests yield very direct measures of how candidates perform on a series of T job elements. Accordingly, these tests have high face validity. From the perspective of the test taker, theyHare concrete and, if clearly jobFor these reasons,, manyy related, likely liikelyy to be seen as fair and objective. , jurisdictions switching performance uriisd sdic ictio ons aare re switch chin ing tto op erform rman a ce tests tes estts when n th this iiss ffeasible easiiblle in technical major cost n tec chn hnical al as well we as budgetary budgetar ary tterms. erm ms. A m ajor aj or llimitation imittat im atio ion n is cos ostt be beequipment be acquired and maintained, causee often eexpensive ca xpe pen nsive eq equi uipm pmen entt mu must b e acqu quir ired ed a nd m ai i ntai nt ain n ed, d A and an nd related reela l ted d personnel p rsonnel costs pe co may be high. ORAL EXAMINATIONS D A M The terms “oral examination” and “interview” are sometimes used 2 synonymously, but an “interview” typically refers to the meeting that a hiring official has with persons who have already passed qualifying 0 tests or examinations and are certified as eligible for appointment. We use the term “oral examination” to0refer to a question-and-answer session conducted orally to measure basic 8 qualifications. The weight or influence assigned to the results of an oral exam will vary with the imT portance given to an employee’s ability to communicate ideas verbally and interact effectively with others.S Such abilities often carry heavy weight in managerial positions, but they are likely to have relatively less impact on overall examination scores for technical or manual jobs. Oral examinations are used most extensively for higher-level managerial and administrative positions, but it is not unusual for them to be a part of test batteries for entry-level professional positions as well. The results of oral examinations are inherently liable to distortions flowing from examiner bias and/or poor structuring of the 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION 89 examination’s content and process. To deal with these problems, oral examinations must be “well planned in terms of the behaviors and responses to be observed, the evaluation standards to be applied, and the procedures for conducting the process” (U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1979). To ensure comparability and consistency, examiners should record their observations according to a standardized format. Training of those conducting the examination is very important because their expertise is the foundation for confidence in the validity of the ratings. The inclusion of women and minority group members on examination panels minimizes the possibility that discrimination will occur, and may also increase the probability that women and minorities will have confidence inS the fairness of the process. M I SSESSMENT CENTER THE GROUP PERFORMANCE TEST/A T The individual examination is the most common form of oral, but H another type is the group oral performance test. In the group oral, candidates topic candid dates es are assembled assem mbl bled ed in in small small,l groups, sm g ou gr ups, and and a topi pic is aassigned ssig ss igne n d fo forr discussion activities exercises required di disc cusssion n or other otheer activit ties es or ex xer erccissess aare re requ uir ireed that tha hat simulate simu ula late te work examiners evaluate how actual wor rk situations. siitu t atio ions n . Civil Civi vill service servvic ice ex exam amin ners ev eval alua uate te h ow tthe he canA during discussions/activities, noting didates perform di perf pe rfor orm duri ing tthese hese d iscussions/act ctiv ivit itiies, not ting particularly part pa rtiicullarlly they with how ho w th hey interact wi w th the otherDmembers of of the group. Advocates this approach how well candidates of th hiss ap appr proach argue arg gue tthat hatt itt sshows ha hows ho ws h ow w ell the el he ca cand ndid idat ates “think at Aaminners only on their th heir feet” and, because beca be caus usee the the examiners exam ex on y listen, liisteen, they the heyy have more time for careful observation. Because clo ose sed d and and the canM the setting is closed didates are together as a group, this type of examination is sometimes referred to as an “assessment center” process. 2 these exercises are staged, and the As critics point out, however, participants may not behave as they 0 would in normal administrative situations. The attention of examiners may be frequently disrupted, so 0 up each person than they would they may really have less time to size in a panel interview. Furthermore, 8 the examiners may end up rating each participant by how the group performed rather than the actual T requirements of the position in question. As a way of compensating S use both individual examinafor these liabilities, some jurisdictions tions and an assessment center process. BACKGROUND INVESTIGATIONS Background investigations are used for a variety of purposes. For most civil service jobs, they are routine reference checks done through mail 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 90 CHAPTER FOUR and telephone inquiries. For some categories of positions, investigators employed by the central personnel agency will visit and interview former employers and others who have direct knowledge of an applicant’s educational preparation, work experience, abilities, and personal qualities. On the state and local levels, the most intensive and comprehensive background checks are done for law enforcement positions. For federal jobs where access to sensitive or secret information is involved, the FBI conducts detailed and comprehensive loyalty and security checks. Recently, OPM contracted-out its background check function to a private corporation established by former employees. Faced with limited resources and time, public employers do not conduct thorough background investigations for most positions. The S relative neglect of this phase of the selection process is regrettable beM cause those who have worked with or supervised candidates on previI ous jobs often can supply far more information about them than can be obtained in an interview. T THEE PROB ROBATIONARY BATIO I NARY PE ERIOD RIO IOD D H , Alth Although though h technically tec echn hnic i allyy n not ot a ttest est or exa examination, xami mina nation on, th thee pr prob probationobatio ion nA i g process; no matter hhow period screening aary ryy p eriod iss th thee last stage in the h screenin ow preemployment much ch eeffort ffor ortt is put put into o making preempl ests valid, they may Dp oymentt ttests motivanot sscreen creeen n out out some applicants ap ppliccan ants ts who who aactually ctua ct uall llyy la lack ck tthe he ability, abi bili lity ty,, m otivaA needed perform particular tion, or work habits nee ede ded d to p erfo er form rm satisfactorily sattis isfaacttor orilyy in np arti ar ticu cular jobs. gives The probationary period (usually sixM months to a year) g ives iv es supervisors the chance to evaluate new employees’ situations and to approve for permanent status only those who have done satisfactory work. 2 have appeal rights, nor, as will Probationary employees usually do not be explained in Chapter 8, do they have 0 property rights in their jobs. As a result, they may be dismissed more easily than when they achieve 0 permanent status. All-too-often, management does 8 not act as if the probationary period were an important part of the selection process. In pracT tice, only a tiny percentage of appointees—in many cases less than 1 percent—is removed during or at S the end of the probationary period. This has traditionally been the situation, despite such schemes to prod supervisors as requiring the appointing officer to certify in writing that the employee’s services have been satisfactory, in the absence of which certification all salary payments are suspended. Needless to say, the practice of routinely moving probationary employees to permanent status without careful performance evaluations undermines the selection process. 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION 91 A CLOSER LOOK AT LISTS OF ELIGIBLES AND RELATED ISSUES As noted earlier, for every position or category of positions, applicants are evaluated and ranked according to their scores on one or more tests. Background checks and medical examinations are used only after an initial offer of employment is made. Each test is weighted in accordance with the civil service agency’s determination of the relative importance of the qualifications it is intended to measure. For example, mathematical skills may be very important to an accounting position, but relatively unimportant in the case of a file clerk or secretary. Minimum qualifications are notS weighted since the applicant must meet them to receive further consideration. The same rule applies to M background checks and medical examinations. Tests are sequenced, I as the first hurdle. If the appliwith minimum qualifications coming cant satisfies the minimum qualifications, he or she then undergoes T one or more of the following: an evaluation of training and experiH test. If theyy are used,, oral examience,, a written test,, or a p performance nations typically next, background investigation. nation ns ty ypi p cally come me n exxt, ffollowed o lo ol o,we w d by b ab ackg ac k roun und in nve vest stig igattio ion n sequencing that places most This Th is seq equeencing iss eeconomical conomi mica call in n tthe he ssense ense se tha hatt it p lacces th la thee mo m st eexx xpensive and time consuming process p pe nsive an nd ti ime con onsuming ng testss at th thee en end d of the he p roceess where ro whe heree the A number candidates bee con considered. would fewest num fe umbe ber of candi did dates need d to b sid idered. It It wo uld ld make makke little sense, example, physical agility li itt ttle le sen ense se,, for exam mple, to administer p hysi i c al ag g ility y tests to everyD body bo dy who who applies applies for for a firefighter fire fi refig fight hter er position pos osit itio on before befo be foree determining det eter ermi mini niing if they A requirement meet a minimum req equi uire reme ment nt such suc uch h as as a high hig gh school scho hoo ol degree. deg egre ree. As we have seen, the list of names who have passed M of individuals who the examination is referred to as a list of eligibles. Applicants are ranked on this list in order of their composite examination scores. Tradition2 ally, when hiring officials have openings to fill, they request the civil service agency to certify names of0eligibles from these lists in the order specified in the civil service law and regulations. There are two basic kinds of hiring procedures using0lists of eligibles: register hiring and case examining. Register hiring 8is a process using standing lists of eligibles rank-ordered by scores. These inventories of candidates are T created to fill openings as they arise. Case examining “involves recruitS and producing a certificate of ing, examining applicant submissions, eligibles for specific individual vacancies rather than using a register of candidates that has already been established” (U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board, 1995, p. vii). Case examining is currently the most common competitive hiring method used by the federal government. Until recently, the rule of three (the three highest-ranking eligibles) was by far the most common system for ensuring that selection would be from among those at the top of a list of eligibles. Historically, 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 92 CHAPTER FOUR this rule emerged as a device for protecting the merit system while giving some discretion to appointing officers. The assumption was that the examination scores would reflect real differences in ability to do the work and that three was a reasonable number of names to certify for each opening. In practice, veterans’ preference, which results in extra points for veterans of the armed forces and serves as a tie-breaker when applicants have the same score, tends to bias the system in favor of veterans when the rule of three is used. Advocates of the rule of three argued that certifying more names, or the entire list of those passing the examination, would increase the risk that line managers would use the opportunity to make appointments on a partisan basis. Some jurisdictions were so concerned S about political contamination that they adopted a rule of one, and a few state and local governments M still operate on that basis. As questions about validity have increased, I EEO concerns have mounted, and pressures for flexibility have grown, public employers have increasingly moved in the opposite direction. T Some states, for example, have modified the rule by allowing the three H highest test scores to be certified, a practice that often results in more three because commonplace. than thre ee candidates caandidates being bein be ing g certified cert ce rtifi ified d, becau ause tties iess are co ie common onpl plac a e. 1995, In 1 995, the MSPB issued 99 isssued a report is rep epor o t on the h rrule ule of three thr hree ee in n which which it it concluded following conc n lud ded d that at a growing growi wing n body bod dy of evidence evide denc nce supported supp su p or o te ted d th thee fo foll llow wing A cconclusions: oncclu l sions: ■ ■ Th The he rule ru ule l of threee does do oes not ot represent rep eDre rese sent nt the the h best besst way way to foster fos oste t r merit-based m me ritt-b ri based hiring. hirrin ng. A The interaction n between betw be twee een the the rule rulle of ru of three th hreee and an nd current curr cu rren entt M approaches preference often results h to t veterans t f ft produces d lt that th t are not in the best interests of managers or job candidates, including those with veterans2preference (U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board, 1995, pp. ix–x). 0 The MSPB recommended that the rule of three be replaced by 0 shall select from an adequate “a requirement that selecting officials number of well-qualified candidates 8 who are referred to them by the appropriate OPM or delegated examining office” (p. x). In addiT tion, the report suggested that federal agencies go to a category ratS “eligible” categories used in a ing system (such as the “quality” and U.S. Department of Agriculture demonstration project) rather than numerical ratings. In 2010, the President’s Hiring Reform Initiative encouraged, but did not require, agencies to develop Category Rating Systems that would increase the number of individuals who could be considered for selection and would provide flexibility unavailable through the rule of three. Typically, under a category system, three categories are defined consisting, for example, of those who are 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION 93 “highly qualified,” “well qualified,” and “qualified.” Presumably several individuals could be found within each category. LESSONS FROM THE PAST: THE SEARCH FOR A SINGLE WRITTEN FEDERAL EXAM Presumably, for those who believe in the merit principle, the best of all possible worlds would be one in which public employers have highly competitive recruitment processes using valid selection tests that produce no adverse impact whatsoever. S Unfortunately, as the federal government’s experience with efforts to implement a screening examiM nation for entry-level professionals and administrators illustrates, such I ideal outcomes are difficult to achieve. A chronic complaint about traditional merit system recruitment, T examination, and selection processes is that they are slow—so slow that manyy highly applicants become frustrated and accept g y qualified q pp H p offers elsewhere. elseewhere. For Fo or entry-level entryen y-le leve v l ,administrative a miini ad n stra rati tive ve and d professional profe fess ssio iona n l popo delays were ssitions itiionss in the the federal federral service, service ce, le llengthy ngth ng thyy d ela layys w e e often er ofte of ten the the result resu re ultt of of ccentralized ce ntrali l zed d control co ontro ol over o er the ov the ranking ran nking g and and d certification certi tificcat atio ion n of applicants app pplica cants A positions agencies. rationale procedure for positi fo ion onss publicized publicized d by agenci ies. Th The ra tional i le for this proced dure to ensure that quality candidates wass that wa at iitt was w s the most wa m st reliable way mo y ensur ure e y D were w eree rreferred efer ef e re red to thee agencies ageenc ncie ies for fo selection seele lect ctio on through thro th roug ugh h an n equitable equ uit itable propotential on cess and, thus, to protect pro rote tect ct merit mer erit it from fA ro om po pote ent ntiaal aabuses bus u es o n the agency level. Modern web-based application examinat atio ion n procedures M and examination have streamlined this process to some extent, but in an earlier era, delays were extensive. Until 1982, OPM used a nationwide paper-based 2 and Administrative Career Exwritten examination, the Professional amination (PACE), to rank applicants 0 for entry-level professional and administrative career positions. Thousands of college graduates sat for 0 exam was derailed, however, by a this exam every year. In 1981, the class-action suit challenging its discriminatory impact. During 1981, 8 a consent decree was negotiated that required OPM to stop using T PACE and to replace it with job-specific written tests that did not have an adverse impact on minorities. S Before the consent decree, OPM had gone to great lengths to establish the validity of PACE. The first step had been to identify the abilities important for successful performance in PACE jobs and to decide how they would be measured. Twenty-seven PACE occupations accounting for about 70 percent of PACE hires during the early 1970s were chosen for intensive analysis. Senior-level supervisors in these occupations prepared lists of the duties of the jobs in these 27 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 94 CHAPTER FOUR occupations, assessed the relative importance of these duties, and rated the required knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) according to their importance to successful job performance. The OPM analysts matched the KSAs and other traits identified in the 27 PACE occupations with those found in earlier tests, and they wrote examination questions similar to those in the earlier tests. After PACE was administered, OPM made criterion-related validity studies that revealed a positive relationship between test scores and job performance scores of persons already in PACE positions, such as social security claims examiners (an example of concurrent validity research). The general abilities found necessary for successful job performance in PACE jobs included the following: S ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Verbal skills, meaning the ability M to understand and interpret complex technical reading materials and to communicate I effectively orally and in writing Judgment, or the capacity to T make decisions or to take actions in the absence of complete H information and to solve problems probl pr lems by inferring missing g facts or events to arrive at the , most m ost logical logical conclusion con oncl clus usion n Induction, Indu ducttio ion n, relating relat atin i g to the he ability abiiliityy to to discover diisc scov over er underlying und nder erly l in ing g relations data formation and relati tions or or principles princ ncip iple les in specific speci cifi fic d ata at by f orma or mation n a nd A testing test stin i g of hypotheses hypot othe h ses D Deduction, De edu d ct ction, meaning meean ning ng skill ski kill ll at at discovering d sc di scov over erin ing g im impl implications plic icat atio ons o off facts and logically applying ap ppl plyi y ng g general ener en eral alAp principles rinccipless to sp specific peci cificc ssituations ituations it Numbers-related abilities, such aritthm hmeetic M as performing arithmetic operations and solving quantitative problems when a specific approach or formula is not specified. 2 PACE did have a disparate or adverse impact on African Ameri0 by OPM on the April 1978 cans and Hispanics. Data compiled administration of PACE showed that08.5 percent of whites taking the test received “unaugmented scores” (not including veterans prefer8 ence points) of 90 or higher, but the percentages of African Americans and Hispanics who took the test and T got such scores were 0.3 and 1.5 percent respectively. In practice, verySfew appointments were made of persons earning scores of less than 90. Other administrations of PACE produced similar results. Those who brought the class action suit challenging PACE’s validity argued that the five constructs upon which the test was based were far too general in nature to measure the ability to succeed in all 118 occupations covered. Critics also questioned the technical soundness of OPM’s validity research. For better or worse, the courts did not 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 95 RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION have the opportunity to rule on PACE’s validity. Instead, two weeks before Ronald Reagan assumed office as president, the Carter administration entered into a consent decree to settle the suit (Luevano v. Campbell). Opponents of “preferential hiring” interpreted Carter’s action as a politically motivated response to minority group pressures. The Reagan administration strongly opposed the decree and was able to negotiate modifications, including elimination of a requirement that the government continue affirmative action efforts until African Americans and Hispanics were at least 20 percent of all employees at the GS-5 and higher grade levels in the job categories covered by PACE. As OPM Director Donald Devine S later said, the Reagan administration had wanted to withdraw from the terms of the decree but had M regretfully concluded that the matter was in the “hands of the court, I unilaterally to bar” (Valdes, nd). beyond the power of the government The main terms of the modified T decree (Luevano v. Devine) were as follows: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ H OPM O PM was to phase out PACE as a selection test by 1985. ,pation Applicants Ap pplicants for for PACE PAC ACE E occupations occu upa ons were were to to bee selected seleccte ted d using usin us ng alternative alte al tern rnat a ive examination examinat ex atio ion n procedures prroc oced edur u es based bas ased ed on on the th requirements requ re uir irem emen ents ts of the p particular articu cula larr occupation. occu oc cupa pation on. A I the If th he alterna alternative native procedures had adverse adveers r e impact, their validity D had d to be established. esstablis ishe hed. d Aak Federal agen agencies nci cies es were wer eree to make m ake “all “ lll practicable “a pract cticcab ble efforts” eff ffo orts” to the interim use of PACE eliminate adverse impact i pact from im e P ACE or M from alternative procedures through recruiting and other special programs. 2 to retain jurisdiction for five The D.C. District Court was years after the implementation 0 of an alternative examining procedure for each occupation. 0 On May 11, 1982, OPM announced that PACE was being 8 abolished and replaced by a new Schedule B appointment authority. T it is not practical to hold comSchedule B applies to positions where petitive examinations. Under Schedule B authority, agencies are alS lowed to hire people for entry-level professional and administrative positions without competitive examinations if they can show there are no qualified internal candidates. Those selected in this manner are placed in the excepted (noncompetitive) service. Until 1987, employees selected in this manner were required to compete for competitive positions to advance to the GS-9 level. If they were selected for a GS-9 position, they were converted to the competitive service. 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 96 CHAPTER FOUR In 1987, however, President Reagan issued Executive Order 12596, which authorized noncompetitive conversions of Schedule B appointments based on “proven performance.” The Reagan administration offered several explanations for ending PACE and turning to Schedule B appointments. First, it argued there were no alternative written tests and other merit selection procedures available. Second, reductions in federal hiring rates were expected to result in substantially fewer appointments from outside the service. Third, the cost of developing validated competitive examinations consistent with the decree would be prohibitive. In fact, at the time, OPM showed little interest in a serious effort to develop alternative selection procedures. InS fact, as late as 1987, OPM had developed only 16 tests which, by its own estimate, covered no more M than 60 percent of the positions involved. I concerned, the use of SchedWhatever the motivations of those ule B appointments did much to T decentralize hiring for professional and administrative positions in the federal government. Under Schedule B, agencies develop and useH their own recruitment and selection procedures. proce cedure r s. Federall line lin inee agencies, agen ag enci c ess,, long g frustrated frust stra rate t d wi with centralized cen ntr tral aliz i ed d and d slow-moving sllow ow–movving g hiring ng processes proceessses that tha hatt undermined und un derm rmined their the heir ir recruitment reccr uitmen nt efforts, effo forts, were generally gene ge nerallyy pleased pl d with with the the Schedule Sch ched dule B authority auth au thor orit ityy for fo prop opr fessional fessio fe ional and d administrative adm ad ministrati tive ve positions. posit itiions.A However, interests protecting H Ho weve we ver, interes sts concerned D about prote ect c ing the merit principle, maintaining overall quality over agency hiring ciple e, m aint ntaini ning overa rall q uali ua lity ty ccontrol ontrrol o on verr ag ve agen encyy h i in ir ing g practices, prractices, As cou potential applicants could the and ensuring that pote ent ntia iall ap appl plic ican ants uld d aaccess ccesss th cc he system syst sy stem from outside were less than enthusiastic. M OPM’s monitoring g an and d evaluation efforts were minimal, and it was very difficult for agencies to get approval to fill entry-level professional and administrative positions 2 placement offices were given from outside the government. College very little information about job opportunities for specific entry-level 0 positions in the excepted service and the delays and frustrations involved in attempting to locate and be0 considered for positions caused many well-qualified candidates to pursue other options. The GAO 8 and MSPB were critical, calling for more effective OPM oversight and T guidance. In early 1987, a suit brought bySthe National Treasury Employees Union (NTEU) signaled the end of OPM’s glacial movement toward alternative selection procedures. The D.C. District Court ruled that OPM had inappropriately abolished the PACE while alternative examinations were unavailable. The judge also ruled that OPM had not made a convincing case about the prohibitive costs connected with developing and validating alternative tests. The original order gave OPM only six months to produce a competitive examination, 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION 97 and it ordered OPM to stop using Schedule B authority to fill PACE positions. Although a stay was granted, the need to implement a legally as well as technically viable alternative was obvious. In 1988, OPM set forth a two-pronged strategy for replacing PACE. First, it proposed expansion of direct hire programs such as the Outstanding Scholars Program described earlier. Second, it announced the development of the Administrative Careers With America (ACWA) examinations covering six occupational categories: (1) health and environment, (2) writing and information, (3) business and program management, (4) human resources and administration, (5) examining and adjudicating, and (6) investigation and inspection. A seventh category included some S 16 occupations having specific educational or experience requirements (such as economist, internaM tional relations, and museum curator). Applicants for positions in this I on the basis of their training and seventh category were to be rated experience. All applicants for ACWA T positions were also required to answer a series of questions intended to provide information tradiH self-discipline, leadership qualities, tionally sought through interviews: problem-solving off the AC ACWA was and pr robllem-solving g skills. skil sk i ls. Th This ccomponent o po ponent nt o A WA Aw as called cal alle led d ,om the Individual th Ind divid dual Achievement Ach hie ievemen nt Record Rec e or ord d (I ((IAR), AR), AR ), had a multiple-choice mul ulti t pllee-choicee forfor omat, and d was was machine machi hin ne scored. scorred. d. A added Veterans Veteera r ns preference prefereenc nce points poiintts were ad dded d to the h total tottal ACWA ACW CWA A score of eligibles. The new exand an d thee ca candidate pl placed on a standing list D aminations June 1990, OPM amin am nattio ions ns were were first st given givven iin n Ju Jun ne 1 990, 99 0, and and O PM revoked rev evok oked ed Schedule A The 1990. less B authority, effective ve July Jul ulyy 1, 1, 1 990. 99 he les ess th than n ssatisfactory atis isfa facctory experithe competitiveness ence with ACWA as a way of improving competiti i vene ve ness of federal federa M recruitment and selection processes since that date is described earlier in this chapter. By the late 1990s, it had been effectively supplanted by 2 and selection procedures driven a variety of decentralized recruitment largely by agency needs and priorities. 0 Initially, however, OPM’s strategy was to balance agency-level 0 recruitment and selection against demands for flexible, streamlined pressures for central oversight and 8 control. Although federal agencies applauded the idea that they should be given direct-hire authority for T students with high grade point averages, this proposal was controverS EEO, and the potential impact sial because of concerns about validity, on workforce quality. The new examinations, though generally well received, raised questions about their capacity to improve recruitment success because, as the GAO observed, OPM’s application procedure was potentially slow-moving and, as a result, potentially frustrating to agencies as well as applicants. A GAO evaluation of the ACWA in 1994 suggested that it had indeed been slow moving and frustrating (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1994). 9781305472334, The New Public Personnel Administration, Seventh Edition, Nigro/Kellough – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 98 CHAPTER FOUR The GAO had noted earlier that the ACWA program might “also create difficulties for agencies, especially those with active recruiting programs” because: The ACWA program effectively breaks the link between recruiting and hiring. Unless a student interested in an ACWA occupation can be employed through the Outstanding Scholar provision, there is no guarantee that agencies can hire the candidates they meet and interview on college campuses. (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1990, p. 22) In 1990, the GAO noted that although the “ACWA is aimed at supporting the goal of merit-based non-discriminatory hiring,” (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1990, p.S22), its impact on federal agencies’ ability to compete in the laborMmarket is uncertain. By 1994, the GAO was prepared to say, “Statistics for fiscal years 1991 and I 1992 tend to support the belief that ACWA is less effective in helping T for females. . . . However, the agencies meet affirmative action goals percentage of minorities hired through H ACWA was similar to that of minorities methods” (U.S. General Accounting minoritiees hired hiired through other methods , mainns in uuse Office, 1994, ACWA Offic fice, e, 199 9 4, p. 13). The The ACW CWA A remains rem re se today tod day forr specific spe peccifi fic entry Agencies have entr tryy level leveel positions le posi po siti tions in GS grades grrad adees 5 tthrough hrou hr ough gh 7. 7. Ag Agen enci cies e h avve al aalso so o been been granted ed direct-hiring dirrect-hi hiri ring ng authority aut utho horityyAforr many man ny positions, posi po siti tio ons, s, so o th thee syssyss tem tem todayy is an an amalgamation amalga g mation of different approaches appr p oaches to examinaD tion an and after nd hiring. hirin i g. g As a result, resultt, af re afte er more more than tha han n 20 0 yyears ears ea rs off turbulence turb tu rb bul u ence and controversy selection, con co ntroveersy in thee area areaa of recruitment rec ecru ruitme nd sel eleection on, the th federal Am nt and personnel system is stil still devise approach illl struggling stru st ugg ggliing tto o devi visee aan n ap ppr proa oach ch tthat h t satisha M fies demands for flexibility and competitiveness competitiveness, supports t efforts to increase the representation of women and minorities in administrative and professional jobs, and can be 2 shown to be valid in all of its important phases. 0 0 CONCLUSION 8 T personnel systems have impleDuring the past 30 years, many public mented extensive delegations of authority S to agencies in the areas of recruitment, testing, and hiring in an effort to remove procedural barriers to effective and efficient management. Indeed, the delegation of examination authority to line agencies has now become a norm and is part of a broader effort to decentralize the public personnel management process. This move away from the regulatory or compliance-centered personnel systems toward a “deregulated” and management-centered hu…

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