[Recommended] - (Mt) – Influence is to leadership as eggs are to an omelet

2019/9/30 Print Preview Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-1 A Model of Power and Inﬂuence Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning 8-1 A Model of Power and Inﬂuence The model shown in Figure 8-1 illustrates that the end results of a leader’s inﬂuence (the outcomes) are a function of the tactics he or she uses. The inﬂuence tactics are in turn moderated, or affected, by the leader’s traits, the leader’s behaviors, and the situation. Figure 8-1 A Model of Power and Inﬂuence © Cengage Learning Looking at the right side of the model, the three possible outcomes are commitment, compliance, and resistance. Commitment (The most successful outcome of a leader’s inﬂuence tactic: The person makes a full effort.) is the most successful outcome: The target of the inﬂuence attempt is enthusiastic about carrying out the request and makes a full effort. Commitment is particularly important for complex, difﬁcult tasks because these require full concentration and effort. If you were inﬂuencing a technician to upgrade your operating system software, you would need his or her commitment. Compliance (Partial success of an inﬂuence attempt by a leader: The person makes a modest effort.) means that the inﬂuence attempt is partially successful: The target person is apathetic (not overjoyed) about carrying out the request and makes only a modest effort. The inﬂuence agent has changed the person’s behavior but not his or her attitude. A long-distance truck driver might comply with demands that he sleep certain hours between hauls, but he is not enthusiastic about losing road time. Compliance for routine tasks—such as wearing a hard hat on a construction site—is usually good enough. Resistance is an unsuccessful inﬂuence attempt: The target is opposed to carrying out the request and ﬁnds ways to either not comply or do a poor job. Resistance (The state that occurs when an inﬂuence attempt by a leader is unsuccessful: The target is opposed to carrying out the request and ﬁnds ways to either not comply or do a poor job.) includes making excuses for why the task cannot be carried out, procrastinating, and outright refusing to do the task. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&snapshotId=12… 1/4 2019/9/30 Print Preview Going to the left side of the model, the leader’s personality traits affect the outcome of inﬂuence tactics. An extroverted and warm leader who has charisma can more readily use some inﬂuence tactics than a leader who is introverted and cold. For example, he or she can make an inspirational appeal. A highly intelligent leader would be able to inﬂuence others because he or she has built a reputation as a subject matter expert. Whichever inﬂuence tactics leaders choose, the goal is to get group members on their side. The leader’s behaviors also affect the outcome of inﬂuence tactics in a variety of ways. For example, setting high standards facilitates making an inspirational appeal. Additionally, leaders who perform well consistently are better able to lead by example because they are good role models. Finally, the situation partly determines which inﬂuence tactic will be effective. The organizational culture or subculture is one such key situational factor. For example, in a high-technology environment, inspirational appeal and emotional display are less likely to be effective than rational persuasion and being a subject matter expert, because high-tech workers are more likely to be impressed by facts than by feelings. The rest of this chapter identiﬁes and describes inﬂuence tactics, including some mention of situational variables. Leader traits and power have been described in previous chapters. Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 8-1 will give you an opportunity to think about which inﬂuence tactics you tend to use. Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 8-1 Survey of Inﬂuence Tactics Instructions: Indicate how frequently you use the inﬂuence tactics listed here: VI = very infrequently or never; I = infrequently; S = sometimes; F = frequently; VF = very frequently. The VI to VF categories correspond to a 1-to-5 scale. 1 2 3 4 5 VI I S F VF 1. I lead by demonstrating the right behavior myself. □ □ □ □ □ 2. I rely on facts and logic to persuade others. □ □ □ □ □ 3. People often listen to me because of my expertise. □ □ □ □ □ 4. If I want something done, I stand ready to do a favor in □ □ □ □ □ return. 5. I enjoy negotiating a price or an offer. □ □ □ □ □ 6. I am assertive (open and forthright in my demands). □ □ □ □ □ 7. I joke with or kid other people to make a point. □ □ □ □ □ 8. I will sometimes get quite emotional to make a point. □ □ □ □ □ 9. I promise to reward the person to get what I want. □ □ □ □ □ https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&snapshotId=12… 2/4 2019/9/30 Print Preview 1 2 3 4 5 VI I S F VF □ □ □ □ □ 11. I cooperate with others in order to inﬂuence them. □ □ □ □ □ 12. As a leader, I participate heavily in the task of the group. □ □ □ □ □ 13. I form an alliance with the other person. □ □ □ □ □ 14. I threaten to go over the person’s head to the boss. □ □ □ □ □ 15. I compliment the other person. □ □ □ □ □ 16. I use as much charm as possible to get my way. □ □ □ □ □ 17. I will post a positive comment about a work associate on □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 10. I attempt to get other people on my side in order to win my point. the Internet, such as Facebook or G+, if he or she has done something I particularly like. 18. I will make a comment pointing out that I am not much good at what I want the other person to do. 19. I would bring the person a little gift, such as a beverage he or she likes or an attractive ballpoint pen. 20. I refer to the importance of doing a particular task for the overall good of the organization. Scoring and Interpretation: The more of these tactics you use frequently or very frequently, the more inﬂuential you probably are. Experience is a factor because you could be potentially inﬂuential but have not yet had the opportunity to use many of these tactics. Skill Development: The Survey of Inﬂuence Tactics might give you some clues for development. Look for inﬂuence tactics that appear to represent a good idea, but where you need skill development. Next, take the opportunity to practice the tactic. For example, take statement 15, “I compliment the other person.” Perhaps you neglect to compliment others when you want to inﬂuence them. Use the guidelines for ﬂattery given in the previous chapter practice to compliment another person when you want to inﬂuence him or her. Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-1 A Model of Power and Inﬂuence Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning © 2019 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner – without the written permission of the copyright holder. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&snapshotId=12… 3/4 2019/9/30 Print Preview https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&snapshotId=12… 4/4 2019/9/30 Print Preview Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-2 Description and Explanation of Inﬂuence Tactics Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning 8-2 Description and Explanation of Inﬂuence Tactics Inﬂuence tactics are often viewed from an ethical perspective. Following this perspective, the inﬂuence tactics described here are classiﬁed into three categories: (a) those that are essentially ethical and honest, (b) those that are essentially neutral with respect to ethics and honesty, and (c) those that are essentially manipulative and dishonest. The categorization presented here is far from absolute. Except for the extremes, most of the tactics could conceivably be placed in any of the three categories, depending on how they are used. For example, one can use the tactic “joking and kidding” in either a well-meaning or mean-spirited way. Joking and kidding could therefore be classiﬁed as “essentially ethical,” “essentially neutral,” or “essentially dishonest and unethical.” Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-2 Description and Explanation of Inﬂuence Tactics Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning © 2019 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner – without the written permission of the copyright holder. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 1/1 2019/9/30 Print Preview Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-2a Essentially Ethical and Honest Tactics Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning 8-2a Essentially Ethical and Honest Tactics This section describes essentially ethical and honest tactics and strategies for inﬂuencing others, as outlined in Table 8-1. Used with tact, diplomacy, and good intent, these strategies can help you get others to join you in accomplishing a worthwhile objective. Because these inﬂuence tactics vary in complexity, they also vary with respect to how much time is required to develop them. Table 8-1 Essentially Ethical and Honest Inﬂuence Tactics 1. Leading by example and respect 2. Using rational persuasion 3. Explaining the beneﬁts to the target 4. Making a personal appeal 5. Developing a reputation as a subject matter expert 6. Exchanging favors and bargaining 7. Legitimating a request 8. Making an inspirational appeal, being charming, and emotional display 9. Consultation with others 10. Forming coalitions 11. Being a team player 12. Practicing hands-on leadership © Cengage Learning Leading by Example, Respect, and Trust A simple but effective way of inﬂuencing group members is by leading by example (Inﬂuencing others by acting as a positive role model.) , or acting as a positive role model. The ideal approach is to be a “do as I say and do” manager—that is, one whose actions and words are consistent. Actions and words conﬁrm, support, and often clarify each other. Being respected facilitates leading by example because group members are more likely to follow the example of leaders they respect. A major way in which a leader obtains respect is https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 1/8 2019/9/30 Print Preview by being trusted. Part of the respect Marissa Mayer has received is that she can be trusted to follow through on her plans such as acquiring companies to help Yahoo! grow, and granting more leave time for new parents. Leading by example is often interpreted to mean that the leader works long and hard, and expects others to do the same, with this type of behavior being prevalent among entrepreneurs who hire a staff. During the startup phase of a company, the entrepreneur will often work over 60 hours per week and expect the new hires to follow a similar work schedule. Research conducted with 683 workers and managers in a large communication organization indicated that a leader who demonstrates organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is likely to inﬂuence subordinates to behavior in a similar manner. Leader OCB was measured by area managers rating their subordinate managers. One dimension of citizenship behavior measured was performance above and beyond the call of duty and high attention to quality. Group managers rated the OCB of their groups as a whole. The result showed that managers who received high ratings on OCB tended to have subordinate groups that exhibited strong organizational citizenship behavior. Leading by example may therefore promote group-level behaviors that enhance organization effectiveness. Using Rational Persuasion Rational persuasion is an important tactic for inﬂuencing people. It involves using logical arguments and factual evidence to convince another person that a proposal or request is workable and likely to achieve the goal. Assertiveness combined with careful research is necessary to make rational persuasion an effective tactic. It is likely to be most effective with people who are intelligent and rational. Chief executive ofﬁcers typically use rational persuasion to convince their boards that an undertaking, such as product diversiﬁcation, is mandatory. A major moderating variable in rational persuasion is the credibility of the inﬂuence agent. Credibility helps an individual be more persuasive in two ways. First, it makes a person more convincing. Second, it contributes to a person’s perceived power, and the more power one is perceived to have, the more targets will be inﬂuenced. The following two statements are samples of how rational persuasion is measured as perceived by subordinates in research about inﬂuence processes. Explains clearly why a request or proposed change is necessary to attain a task objective. Provides information or evidence to show that a proposed activity or change is likely to be successful. Leaders who emphasize the rational decision-making model favor rational persuasion. For example, a leader favoring this model might say, “Don’t tell me what you feel, give me the facts,” in response to a subordinate who said, “I have the feeling that morale is down.” Leaders at Google heavily emphasize such data-based decision making. A Google professional in a meeting would be rejected if he or she said, “I think there are too many random photos appearing in Google Images.” In contrast, he or she would be accepted if https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 2/8 2019/9/30 Print Preview the statement were, “I sampled 100 Google Images, and found that eight of them had random images.” Explaining Beneﬁts to the Target A strongly effective way of inﬂuencing another person is to explain what’s in it for him or her if that individual honors your request. Apprising (Inﬂuence tactic in which inﬂuence agent explains how carrying out a request or supporting a proposal will beneﬁt the target personally, including advancing the target’s career.) means that the inﬂuence agent explains how carrying out a request or supporting a proposal will beneﬁt the target personally, including advancing the target’s career. An example of apprising would be for the manager to tell a subordinate, “Perhaps two weeks helping out for one month on the company’s oil rig in the Arctic Circle may seem like a tough assignment. But you will seem like a hero to top management, and you will make great contacts.” Two apprising behaviors on the part of the leader are as follows: Describes beneﬁts you could gain from doing a task or activity (e.g., learn new skills, meet important people, enhance your reputation). Explains how the task he or she wants you to do could help your career. Making a Personal Appeal A personal appeal in the context of inﬂuence theory is the same as it is in everyday life. The agent asks the target to implement a request or support a proposal out of friendship. Another form of personal appeal is to ask for a personal favor before specifying the nature of the favor, as in “How would you like to do something important for me?” Asking for a favor without specifying its nature would likely be interpreted as unprofessional in a work environment. Two behaviors reﬂecting a personal appeal by a leader are as follows: Appeals to your friendship when asking you to do something. Asks for your help as a personal favor. Developing a Reputation as a Subject Matter Expert Becoming a subject matter expert (SME) on a topic of importance to the organization is an effective strategy for gaining inﬂuence. Being an SME can be considered a subset of rational persuasion. Managers who possess expert knowledge in a relevant ﬁeld and who continually build on that knowledge can get others to help them get work accomplished. Many of the leaders described throughout this text use expert knowledge to inﬂuence others. The leaders of Internet and social media companies such as Google and Foursquare are usually subject matter experts. In recent years, General Electric Co. has emphasized the importance of industry expertise for business unit managers. GE is now keeping its senior leaders in place longer with the expectation that deeper understanding of the products and customers will enhance sales. In the past, business unit leaders relocated every few years to give them a broader understanding of the company. David Joyce, the president of commercial engines operation, https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 3/8 2019/9/30 Print Preview represents the subject matter expertise approach. He has spent his entire 32 years with GE working his way up the aviation unit. Small business owners, in particular, rely on being subject matter experts because they founded the business on the basis of their product or technical knowledge. (Also, the major high-tech companies usually began small.) For example, the leader of a software company is usually an expert in software development. Exchanging Favors and Bargaining Offering to exchange favors if another person will help you achieve a work goal is another standard inﬂuence tactic. By making an exchange, you strike a bargain with the other party. The exchange often translates into being willing to reciprocate at a later date. It might also be promising a share of the beneﬁts if the other person helps you accomplish a task. For example, you might promise to place a person’s name on a report to top management if that person will help you analyze the data and prepare the tables. A recommended approach to asking for a favor is to give the other person as much time as feasible to accomplish the task, such as by saying, “Could you ﬁnd ten minutes between now and the end of the month to help me?“ Not pressing for immediate assistance will tend to lower resistance to the request. Giving a menu of options for different levels of assistance also helps lower resistance. For example, you might ask another manager if you can borrow a technician for a one-month assignment; then, as a second option, you might ask if the technician could work ten hours per week on the project. To ensure that the request is perceived as an exchange, you might explain what reciprocity you have in mind: That you will mention your coworker’s helpfulness to his or her manager. Two behavior speciﬁcs for exchanging favors and bargaining are as follows: Offers to do a speciﬁc task for you in return for your help and support. Offers to do something for you in the future for your help now. Legitimating a Request To legitimate is to verify that an inﬂuence attempt is within your scope of authority. Another aspect of legitimating is showing that your request is consistent with the organizational policies, practices, and expectations of professional people. Making legitimate requests is an effective inﬂuence tactic because most workers are willing to comply with regulations. A team leader can thus exert inﬂuence with a statement such as this one: “Top management wants a 25 percent reduction in customer complaints by next year. I’m therefore urging everybody to patch up any customer problems he or she can ﬁnd.” Legitimating sometimes takes the form of subtle organizational politics. A worker might push for the acceptance of his or her initiative because it conforms to the philosophy or strategy of higher management. At Amazon.com, for example, it is well known that CEO Jeff Bezos likes to keep costs to a minimum. A distribution center manager might then encourage workers to be careful about wasting energy because “It’s something Jeff would want us to do.” Two leadership behaviors that reﬂect legitimating are as follows: https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 4/8 2019/9/30 Print Preview Says that his or her request is consistent with ofﬁcial rules and policies. Veriﬁes that a request is legitimate by referring to a document such as a work order, policy manual, charter, bylaws, or formal contract. Making an Inspirational Appeal, Being Charming, and Emotional Display A leader is supposed to inspire others, so it follows that making an inspirational appeal is an important inﬂuence tactic. As Jeffrey Pfeffer notes, “Executives and others seeking to exercise inﬂuence in organizations often develop skill in displaying, or not displaying, their feelings in a strategic fashion.” An inspirational appeal usually involves displaying emotion and appealing to group members’ emotions. A moderating variable in the effectiveness of an inspirational appeal or emotional display is the inﬂuence of agent’s personal magnetism (A captivating, inspiring personality with charm and charismatic-like qualities.) , or the quality of being captivating, charming, and charismatic. Possessing personal magnetism makes it easier for the leader to inspire people. The relevance of inspiration to inﬂuence is emphasized by the research of John H. Zenger and his associates. Based on results from 150,000 360-degree feedback assessments of 11,000 leaders, it was found that the key leadership behavior was, “Inspires and motivates to high performance.” A key component of inspiring and motivation was found to be understanding the role of emotion in the workplace, as well as being able to use his or her emotions comfortably. A useful component of inspirational appeal for leaders is to provide meaning to the work, showing that it has signiﬁcance to the entire organization or the outside world. Most people like to be involved with projects that matter, and sometimes the leader might have to explain why the work matters. For example, the leader of a company that specializes in subprime mortgages might have to explain, “Without our type of work, loads of people with modest incomes would not be able to become homeowners.” Another approach to inspiring workers is to create a vision that surpasses the wants and needs of most people. One of the ways in which leaders at both Apple and Google have inspired workers is to involve them in a vision of “changing the world” with their products and services. Two recorded behaviors of leaders who make an inspirational appeal are as follows: Says a proposed activity or change is an opportunity to do something really exciting and worthwhile. Makes an inspiring speech or presentation to arouse enthusiasm for a proposed activity or change. Consultation with Others Consultation with others before making a decision is both a leadership style and an inﬂuence technique. The inﬂuence target becomes more motivated to follow the agent’s request because the target is involved in the decision-making process. Consultation is most effective as an inﬂuence tactic when the objectives of the person being inﬂuenced are https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 5/8 2019/9/30 Print Preview consistent with those of the leader. An example of such goal congruity took place in a major corporation. The company had decided to shrink its pool of suppliers to form closer partnerships with a smaller number of high-quality vendors. As a way of inﬂuencing others to follow this direction, a manufacturing vice president told his staff, “Our strategy is to reduce dealing with so many suppliers to improve quality and reduce costs. Let me know how we should implement this strategy.” The vice president’s inﬂuence attempt met with excellent reception, partially because the staff members also wanted a more streamlined set of vendor relationships. Two speciﬁc leadership behaviors reﬂecting consultation are as follows: Asks you to suggest things you could do to help him or her achieve a task objective or resolve a problem. Invites you to suggest ways to improve a preliminary plan or proposal that he or she wants you to support or help implement. Forming Coalitions At times, it is difﬁcult to inﬂuence an individual or group by acting alone. A leader will then have to form coalitions, or alliances, with others to create the necessary clout. A coalition (A speciﬁc arrangement of parties working together to combine their power.) is a speciﬁc arrangement of parties working together to combine their power. Coalition formation works as an inﬂuence tactic because, to quote an old adage, “there is power in numbers.” Coalitions in business are a numbers game—the more people you can get on your side, the better. However, the more powerful leaders are, the less they need to create a coalition. Having a network of powerful people facilitates forming a coalition. If you need something done, you can get these other inﬂuential people to agree that it is a good idea. An example of getting something done might be getting permission to erect an ofﬁce building close to a park. One of the best connected and therefore one of the most powerful people in business is Mellody Hobson, president of Ariel Capital Management, LLC, a large mutual fund company based in Chicago. Hobson has become a nationally recognized authority on ﬁnancial literacy and ﬁnancial education. Among the well-known people in her network are John Rogers, Jr., the founder of Ariel; Diane Sawyer of Good Morning America; William Lauder, CEO of Estée Lauder; Barack Obama, U.S. president; ﬁrst lady, Michelle Obama; George Lucas, her husband and billionaire ﬁlmmaker; and Paul Allen, cofounder of Microsoft. Two speciﬁc leadership behaviors that reﬂect coalition formation are as follows: Mentions the names of other people who endorse a proposal when asking you to support it. Brings someone along for support when meeting with you to make a request or proposal. Being a Team Player https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 6/8 2019/9/30 Print Preview Inﬂuencing others by being a good team player is an important strategy for getting work accomplished. A leader might be a team player by doing such things as pitching in during peak workloads. An example would be an information technology team leader working through the night with team members to combat a virus attack on the company’s computer network. Being a team player is a more effective inﬂuence tactic in an organizational culture that emphasizes collaboration than one in which being tough-minded and decisive is more in vogue. A study of CEO leadership proﬁles among buyout ﬁrms found that teamwork was less associated with success than traits such as persistence and efﬁciency. Leaders in buyout ﬁrms are strongly ﬁnancially oriented and are much more concerned with making deals than building relationships. Practicing Hands-On Leadership A hands-on leader (A leader who gets directly involved in the details and process of operations.) is one who gets directly involved in the details and processes of operations. Such a leader has expertise, is task oriented, and leads by example. By getting directly involved in the group’s work activities, the leader inﬂuences subordinates to hold certain beliefs and to follow certain procedures and processes. For example, managers who get directly involved in ﬁxing customer problems demonstrate to other workers how they think such problems should be resolved. Hands-on leadership is usually expected at levels below the executive suite, yet many highlevel executives are also hands-on leaders. A strong example is Sergio Marchionne, the Chrysler and Fiat CEO, who intervenes in such matters as a leaking car door handle. The downside of being a hands-on leader is that if you do it to excess, you become a micromanager. The accompanying Leader in Action insert describes an automotive company executive who has been successful in inﬂuencing others. Leader in Action Doug Scott, Truck Group Marketing Manager at Ford Motor Company Doug Scott holds the formal job title of truck group manager at Ford Motor Company. Yet, he is so inﬂuential in his ﬁeld that he has been referred to as the Sovereign of Truck Mountain. Scott is the leader of a truck business that generates $22 billion annually and outsells all its rivals. Despite heavy competition from GM, Dodge, and Toyota, the Ford Series pickup trucks have been the best-selling model in the United States for over thirty years. A University of Michigan graduate, Scott climbed the corporate ladder through the sales route. He was in charge of the of the Ford Explorer SUV marketing before being promoted to head of the truck division in 2002. His present responsibilities include pickup trucks, large SUVs, and commercial vehicles. Scott is well respected for the marketing insights he brings to his position. One of his most inﬂuential decisions was to segment the market for the F-150 pickup truck https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 7/8 2019/9/30 Print Preview series. During the 2009 recession, Scott championed a low-cost F-150 for contractors and landscapers. In addition, there are models in the intermediate price range, as well as the high-end luxury range. One truck, labeled the Raptor SVT, is an off-the-road vehicle that climbs boulders and supposedly jump small canyons. The recently introduced Tremor is a two-seater sports truck that can accelerate to 60 miles per hour in 6.4 seconds. Scott does not consider himself to be a “gearhead” in the traditional sense, but he has long been fascinated by the relationship between the automobile industry and the public’s passion for cars and trucks. Scott’s love for trucks and his devotion to Ford have helped him be well liked as a leader. He has developed close bonds among designers, marketers, and customers that have brought him substantial clout within the company. Mark Williams, the editor of website pickuptrucks.com, says about Scott, “The depth of his knowledge seems real and genuine. No matter what the situation, he has an answer.” As a leader, Scott has been successful in building a tight-knit team, many of who have been with Ford for decades. The team knows its customers quite well. Scott said that the team attends events such as the Professional Bull Riders Association and the Future Farmers of America. Such activities give the team an opportunity for face-to-face contact with customers. Questions 1. Which inﬂuence tactics can you infer that Doug Scott uses in his leadership role? 2. What career lessons might be taken away from this story about Scott? Sources: Original story created from facts and observations in the following sources: Mike Ramsey, “Ford Truck Czar Divides to Conquer,” The Wall Street Journal, November 7, 2013, p. B10; Cameron Miquelon, “The Legend of Ford’s Truck Czar’s Rule Over Truck Mountain,” The Truth about Cars ( www.thetruthaboutcars.com), November 12, 2013, pp. 1–2; “Doug Scott: Marketing Manager Enjoys Consumer Connection,” http://corporate.ford.com, September 24, 2009, p. 1. Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-2a Essentially Ethical and Honest Tactics Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning © 2019 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner – without the written permission of the copyright holder. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 8/8 2019/9/30 Print Preview Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-2b Essentially Neutral Inﬂuence Tactics Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning 8-2b Essentially Neutral Inﬂuence Tactics The four inﬂuence tactics described in this section and listed in Table 8-2 might best be regarded as neutral with respect to ethics and honesty. If implemented with good intent, they tend to be positive, but if implemented with the intent of duping another person, they tend to be negative. Table 8-2 Essentially Neutral Inﬂuence Tactics 1. Ingratiation 2. Joking and kidding 3. Upward appeal 4. Co-opting antagonists © Cengage Learning Ingratiation When ingratiation takes the form of well-deserved ﬂattery or compliments, it is a positive tactic. Yet, getting somebody else to like you can be considered a mildly manipulative inﬂuence tactic if you do not like the other person. Ingratiation is often directed upward, in the sense of a subordinate attempting to get the superior to like him or her, as in organizational politics. Ingratiation also works in a downward direction, when leaders attempt to get their subordinates to like them. Typical ingratiating techniques directed toward subordinates include luncheon invitations, compliments, giving a plum work assignment, and feeding a subordinate’s hobby, such as contributing a rare stamp to an employee’s collection. Leaders who ordinarily are quite the opposite of ingratiating will sometimes go out of their way to be humble and agreeable to ﬁt an important purpose. An example is the CEO of a large fast-food franchise operation. She might be cutting and sarcastic when at company headquarters. Yet when on a goodwill tour to visit franchisees, she is ingratiating. For example, she compliments the quality of the food of one of the chain restaurants, and asks to be photographed with the franchisee. Ingratiating tactics identiﬁed in a study about inﬂuence tactics included the following: Says you have the special skills or knowledge needed to carry out a request. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 1/5 2019/9/30 Print Preview Praises your skill or knowledge when asking you to do something. Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 8-2 provides you an opportunity to measure your own ingratiating tendencies and to think through further what ingratiating yourself to your boss means in practice. Remember that being liked helps you get promoted, receive more compensation, and avoid being downsized, yet you should avoid being dishonest. Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 8-2 Measure of Ingratiating Behavior in Organizational Settings (MIBOS) Instructions: Indicate how frequently you use (or would use) the tactics for pleasing your boss listed here. N = never do it; S = seldom do it; Oc = occasionally do it; Of = often do it; A = almost always do it. The N-to-A categories correspond to a 1-to-5 scale. 1. Impress upon your supervisor that only he or she can 1 2 3 4 5 N S OC OF A □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ help you in a given situation mainly to make him or her feel good. 2. Show your supervisor that you share enthusiasm about his or her new idea even when you may not actually like it. 3. Try to let your supervisor know that you have a reputation for being liked. 4. Try to make sure that your supervisor is aware of your success. 5. Highlight the achievements made under your supervisor’s leadership in a meeting he or she does not attend. 6. Give frequent smiles to express enthusiasm and interest about something your supervisor is interested in even if you do not like it. 7. Express work attitudes that are similar to your supervisor’s as a way of letting him or her know that the two of you are alike. 8. Tell your supervisor that you can learn a lot from his or her experience. 9. Exaggerate your supervisor’s admirable qualities to convey the impression that you think highly of him or her. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 2/5 2019/9/30 Print Preview 1 2 3 4 5 N S OC OF A □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 15. Look out for opportunities to admire your supervisor. □ □ □ □ □ 16. Let your supervisor know the attitudes you share with □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 19. Go out of your way to run an errand for your supervisor. □ □ □ □ □ 20. Offer to help your supervisor by using your personal □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 10. Disagree on trivial or unimportant issues but agree on those issues in which he or she expects support from you. 11. Try to imitate such work behaviors of your supervisor as working late or occasionally working on weekends. 12. Look for opportunities to let your supervisor know your virtues and strengths. 13. Ask your supervisor for advice in areas in which he or she thinks he or she is smart to let him or her feel that you admire his or her talent. 14. Try to do things for your supervisor that show your selﬂess generosity. him or her. 17. Compliment your supervisor on his or her achievement, however it may appeal to you personally. 18. Laugh heartily at your supervisor’s jokes even when they are really not funny. contacts. 21. Try to persuasively present your own qualities when attempting to convince your supervisor about your abilities. 22. Volunteer to be of help to your supervisor in matters like locating a good apartment, ﬁnding a good insurance agent, etc. 23. Spend time listening to your supervisor’s personal problems even if you have no interest in them. 24. Volunteer to help your supervisor in his or her work even if it means extra work for you. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 3/5 2019/9/30 Print Preview Scoring and Interpretation: The more of these ingratiating behaviors you use frequently or almost always, the more ingratiating you are. A score of 40 or less suggests that you do not put much effort into pleasing your manager, and you may need to be a little more ingratiating to achieve a good relationship with your supervisor. A score between 41 and 99 suggests a moderate degree of ingratiating behavior. A score of 100 or more suggests that you are too ingratiating and might be perceived as being too political or insincere. So some honesty is called for, providing you are tactful. Skill Development: Leaders or future leaders should remember that a moderate amount of ingratiating behavior is the norm in relationships with superiors. Ingratiating yourself to people who report to you can also be a useful inﬂuence tactic. Source: Adapted from Kamalesh Kumar and Michael Beyerlein, “Construction and Validation of an Instrument for Measuring Ingratiatory Behaviors in Organizational Settings,” Journal of Applied Psychology, October 1991, p. 623. American Psychological Association. Joking and Kidding Good-natured kidding is especially effective when a straightforward statement might be interpreted as harsh criticism. Joking or kidding can thus get the message across and lower the risk that the inﬂuence target will be angry with the inﬂuence agent. Joking and kidding might be interpreted either as dishonest or as extraordinarily tactful because the criticizer softens the full blow of the criticism. A small business owner successfully used joking and kidding to help the receptionist wear clothing more appropriate for the position. As the owner entered the ofﬁce, he noticed that the receptionist was wearing a tank top and very large hoop earrings. The owner said, “Melissa, you look great, but I think you have your dates confused. You are dressed for the company picnic, and it takes place tomorrow.” Melissa smiled, and then dressed more professionally in the future. Upward Appeal In upward appeal (A means of inﬂuence in which the leader enlists a person with more formal authority to do the inﬂuencing.) , the leader exerts inﬂuence on a team member by getting a person with more formal authority to do the inﬂuencing. Some managers and researchers regard upward appeal as an ethical and standard practice, yet it does contain an element of manipulation and heavy-handedness. An example: “I sent the guy to my boss when he wouldn’t listen to me. That ﬁxed him.” More than occasional use of upward appeal weakens the leader’s stature in the eyes of group members and superiors, eroding effectiveness. Leaders can apply upward appeal in other ways. A leader might attempt to persuade another staff member that higher management approved his or her request. The target of the inﬂuence event is thus supposed to grant acceptance automatically. Or, the leader can request higher management’s assistance in gaining another person’s compliance with the request. The inﬂuence target thus feels pressured. Co-Opting Antagonists https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 4/5 2019/9/30 Print Preview A potentially effective inﬂuence tactic, as well as a method of conﬂict resolution, is to ﬁnd a clever way to get the other person or group of persons to join forces with you. In this sense, to co-opt (To win over opponents by making them part of your team or giving them a stake in the system.) is to win over opponents by making them part of your team or giving them a stake in the system. Assume that the director of human resources is receiving considerable opposition to some of her initiatives from the chief ﬁnancial ofﬁcer. For example, the CFO is opposed to her proposed program of cross-cultural training. To soften the opposition, and perhaps even make him an ally, the director of human resources invites the CFO to become a member of the “human resources advisory board” composed of company executives and distinguished citizens from the community. Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-2b Essentially Neutral Inﬂuence Tactics Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning © 2019 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner – without the written permission of the copyright holder. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 5/5 2019/9/30 Print Preview Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-2c Essentially Dishonest and Unethical Tactics Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning 8-2c Essentially Dishonest and Unethical Tactics The tactics described in this section are less than forthright and ethical, yet they vary in intensity with respect to dishonesty. Most people would consider the ﬁrst two strategies presented here as unethical and devious, yet they might regard the second two tactics as still within the bounds of acceptable ethics, even though less than fully candid. The tactics in question are outlined in Table 8-3. Table 8-3 Essentially Dishonest and Unethical Inﬂuence Tactics 1. Deliberate Machiavellianism 2. Gentle manipulation of people and situations 3. Undue pressure 4. Debasement © Cengage Learning Deliberate Machiavellianism Niccolò Machiavelli advised that princes must be strong, ruthless, and cynical leaders because people are self-centered and self-serving. As implied in Chapter 7, people in the workplace who ruthlessly manipulate others have therefore come to be called Machiavellians (People in the work place who ruthlessly manipulate others.) . They tend to initiate actions with others and control the interactions. Machiavellians regularly practice deception, blufﬁng, and other manipulative tactics. A modern example of deliberate Machiavellianism is the practice of forcing managerial and professional employees into working many extra hours of uncompensated overtime. The employees are told that if they refuse to work extra hours, they will not be considered worthy of promotion or as good team players. Even when positions in other companies are readily available, most career-minded people will stay because they want to preserve a good reputation. Gentle Manipulation of People and Situations Some people who attempt to inﬂuence others are manipulative, but to a lesser extent than an outright Machiavellian. They gain the compliance of another person by making untrue statements or faking certain behaviors. For example, a leader might imply that if a colleague supports his position in an intergroup conﬂict, the person might be recommended for promotion. Another manipulative approach is to imply dire consequences to innocent people if the inﬂuence target does not comply with demands of the inﬂuence agent, such as, “Even https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 1/4 2019/9/30 Print Preview if you don’t want to put in extra effort for me, think of the people with families who will be laid off if we don’t make our targets.” A widely used manipulative approach is to tap into social norms in order to gain consensus. According to Steve Martin, behavior specialist at the consulting ﬁrm Inﬂuence at Work, this technique can move people to model their behavior after others. He gives the example of working with the U.K. tax collecting service. Martin witnessed an increase in the return rate after enclosing messages such as “nine out of ten people pay their tax on time.” The rate of returns increased even more when the tax collection service presented messages referring to the number of people who ﬁeld returns with the individual’s own town or postal code. A workplace example is a manager who informs the vice president that she wants an enlarged budget for attendance at the latest social networking seminars because “all other companies are doing it.” The technique of tapping into social norms can be combined with peer pressure to inﬂuence a group member. If one person is not stepping forward to work well as a team member, the manager will say, “Bob, everyone in the department is committed to developing a team atmosphere, and we’d like you to be a part of it.” Undue Pressure Effective leaders regularly use motivational techniques such as rewards and mild punishments. Yet, when rewards become bribes for compliance and threats of punishment become severe, the target person is subjected to undue pressure or coercion. An example of a bribe by a manager might be, “If you can work eighty hours on this project this week, I’ll recommend you for the highest pay grade.” Another approach to pressure is for the manager to scream and swear at the subordinate as a form of intimidation. As one manager under pressure of his own, shouted to a subordinate: “Get some of these receivables paid by the end of the week or ﬁnd another job.” Two speciﬁc behaviors labeled pressure in a research study were as follows: Uses threats or warnings when trying to get you to do something. Tries to pressure you to carry out a request. Debasement A subtle manipulative tactic is debasement (The act of demeaning or insulting oneself to control the behavior of another person.) , demeaning or insulting oneself to control the behavior of another person. Richard Parsons, the former chair of Citigroup, uses debasement to disarm people. A long-time friend said of Parsons, “Richard’s ability to get people to underestimate him is a great skill. If you are obvious, they know where to hit you. Who wins between the bull and matador?“ Speciﬁc debasing tactics revealed by research include the following: “I lower myself so she’ll do it,” and “I act humble so she’ll do it.” In studying the most severe unethical inﬂuence (and political) tactics, it is important to recognize that the use of these inﬂuence approaches can bring about human suffering. For example, bullying and intimidating tactics may not be illegal, but they are unethical. Cruelty https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 2/4 2019/9/30 Print Preview in the organization creates many problems. As one observer notes, “Cruelty is blatantly unethical and erodes the organizational character through intellectual, emotional, moral, and social vices that reduce the readiness of groups to act ethically.” Examples of cruelty include insulting a group member’s physical appearance or belittling him or her. Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-1 gives you an opportunity to practice inﬂuence tactics in a high-stakes business situation. Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-1 Inﬂuence Tactics One student plays the role of a chief ﬁnancial ofﬁcer of a large company. After months of analysis, the CFO decides that a key step the company can take to be proﬁtable during the next several years is to get about 5,000 employees to accept voluntary retirement. As severance pay, the workers who accept the retirement package will receive one year’s salary, depending on the length of service. The buyout could cost the company around $5 million in payouts plus some liability for future health beneﬁts and retirement pay. Four other students will play the role of the top-management team, several of whom might be skeptical about the soundness of the plan offered by the CFO. Observers will pay close attention to the inﬂuence tactics used by the CFO, and perhaps by the other members of the topmanagement team. Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-2 will help you recognize several of the inﬂuence tactics described in this chapter. Another tactic mentioned in the exercise, assertiveness, was described in Chapter 2. Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-2 Identifying Inﬂuence Tactics Instructions: After reading the following passage, identify which inﬂuence tactics the leader is using, and explain your reasoning. Gina is the director of human resources in a diversiﬁed company with approximately 50,000 workers. She has assembled her ﬁve direct reports in a hotel conference room for a Saturday morning meeting. With an intense facial expression, Gina launched directly into her presentation, supported by PowerPoint slides on a large screen. “Enjoy your coffee, tea, juice, donuts, bagels, and pastries because I can offer you no other goodies this morning. As HR professionals, you know we are in trouble. As hard as we all work, and as much good as we do, our jobs are in peril. The trend is clear. Our corporation, similar to many others, might be outsourcing our work to HR vendors. The movement has already begun with payroll being outsourced last year and health insurance this year. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 3/4 2019/9/30 Print Preview “Even worse, the corporate group is planning to purchase HR software that will enable line managers throughout the company to take care of their own HR responsibilities, such as recruiting and selection. “I want to work with all of you to develop strategies and tactics so vital that the topmanagement team will decide to keep our group intact, and not join the outsourcing movement. We need also to discourage line managers from being performing HR on their own without our help. Think of HR activities so vital that we become indispensable. Maybe we should be coordinating a ﬂu-shot program. Maybe we should beef up our wellness program so much that absenteeism and insurance costs are reduced to an extent that our contribution to the bottom line is obvious even to our chief ﬁnancial ofﬁcer. “Now that I’ve told you the truth, let’s get started having a true dialogue about the challenges facing us.” Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-2c Essentially Dishonest and Unethical Tactics Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning © 2019 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner – without the written permission of the copyright holder. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 4/4 2019/10/10 Print Preview Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-4a Relative Effectiveness of Inﬂuence Tactics Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning 8-4a Relative Effectiveness of Inﬂuence Tactics Since inﬂuence tactics are a major component of leadership, research about their relative effectiveness is worth noting. A classic study by Gary Yukl and J. Bruce Tracey provides insights into the relative effectiveness of inﬂuence tactics. One hundred and twenty managers participated in the study, along with 526 subordinates, 543 peers, and 128 superiors, who also rated the managers’ use of inﬂuence tactics. Half the managers worked for manufacturing companies, and half worked for service companies. The people who worked with the managers completed a questionnaire to identify which of the nine inﬂuence tactics the managers used. As deﬁned for the participants, the tactics were as follows: (1) rational persuasion, (2) inspirational appeal, (3) consultation, (4) ingratiation, (5) exchange, (6) personal appeal, (7) coalition, (8) legitimating, and (9) pressure. Another question asked how many inﬂuence attempts by the agent resulted in complete commitment by the target respondent. Respondents were also asked to rate the overall effectiveness of the manager in carrying out managerial job responsibilities. The item had nine response choices, ranging from “the least effective manager I have ever known” to “the most effective manager.” The results suggested that the most effective tactics were rational persuasion, inspirational appeal, and consultation. (An effective tactic was one that led to task commitment and that was used by managers who were perceived to be effective by the various raters.) In contrast, the least effective were pressure, coalition, and appealing to legitimate authority (legitimating). Ingratiation and exchange were moderately effective for inﬂuencing team members and peers. The same tactics, however, were not effective for inﬂuencing superiors. A related interpretation of the data would be that noncoercive tactics that provide a rational and justiﬁable basis for attitude change are more effective in gaining compliance than are threatening or manipulative attempts. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 1/2 2019/10/10 Print Preview Inspirational appeal, ingratiation, and pressure were used primarily in a downward direction, that is, toward a lower-ranking person. Personal appeal, exchange, and legitimating were used primarily in a lateral direction. It was also found that coalitions were used most in lateral and upward directions and that rational persuasion was used most in an upward direction. The researchers concluded that some tactics are more likely to be successful than others. Yet, they caution that the results do not imply that these tactics will always result in task commitment. The outcome of a speciﬁc inﬂuence attempt is also determined by other factors, such as the target’s motivation and the organizational culture. Also, any tactic can trigger target resistance if it is not appropriate for the situation or if it is applied unskillfully. Tact, diplomacy, and insight are required for effective application of inﬂuence tactics. Which inﬂuence tactic a manager might consider effective, and therefore choose, depends to some extent on how much group members are trusted. When we distrust people, we are likely to attempt to control their actions. Carole V. Wells and David Kipnis conducted a survey about trust involving 275 managers and 267 employees. The managers answered questions about subordinates, and subordinates answered questions about their managers. A key ﬁnding was that both managers and employees used strong tactics of inﬂuence when they distrusted the other party—either a manager or a subordinate. The strong inﬂuence tactics studied were appeals to higher authority, assertiveness, coalition building, and sanctions. Another perspective on the relative effectiveness of inﬂuence tactics comes from a study of territory managers and their service center managers who worked for a distribution company. A major ﬁnding was that the quality of the relationship with the leader (leader– member exchange, or LMX) had an impact on the effectiveness of inﬂuence tactics. When group members perceived a poor relationship with their leader, the leader’s use of inspirational appeal and exchange resulted in less helping of coworkers by members. However, the leaders’ consultation tactics were positively associated with the members helping work associates. When group members perceived their relationship with the leader as positive, exchange tactics by the leaders positively related to helping behavior. An interpretation offered for these interactions has a lesson for leaders. Members in lowquality relationships may interpret appeals to their values, goals, and aspirations or exchange offers as empty. As a result, the members did not engage in more helping behaviors based on inspirational appeals. Yet, consultation is more effective and may prompt members to become more helpful. Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-4a Relative Effectiveness of Inﬂuence Tactics Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning © 2019 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner – without the written permission of the copyright holder. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 2/2 2019/10/10 Print Preview Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-3 Leadership Inﬂuence for Organizational Change Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning 8-3 Leadership Inﬂuence for Organizational Change Most of the discussion so far relates to the leader/manager inﬂuencing people one at a time or in small groups. Top-level leaders exert many of their inﬂuence attempts in the direction of bringing about changes throughout the entire organization, often by attempting to overhaul the organizational culture. One such change would be attempting to inﬂuence a culture that was too collaborative to make decisions more quickly and independently, or the reverse. Another change would be to make the culture more focused on products the market wanted and less focused on innovation for its own sake. Yet another cultural change facing a CEO would be to make a risk-averse workforce more entrepreneurial and risk taking. Before plunging ahead with attempts at massive cultural change, the leader needs to study the old culture and understand why it contributed to the prosperity and growth of the organization. When Marissa Mayer joined Yahoo!, she already knew a lot about the company as part of her role at Google. She intuitively recognized that the excitement and pride of Yahoo!’s past had contributed to its Internet prominence. Marissa also recognized that the Yahoo! culture had taken a downturn. She worked swiftly to upgrade the technology-feel to the company by such steps as acquisition and spearheading a large number of Yahoo! mobile apps. The inﬂux of new talent helped upgrade the culture and image of Yahoo!. As one employee was quoted as saying, “It’s no longer shameful to work at Yahoo!.” After a new CEO is appointed, the person typically makes a public statement to the effect that: “My number-one job is to change the culture.” A leader might do the following to bring about change as well as ensuring that a healthy corporate culture is maintained. Serve as a role model for the desired attitudes and behaviors. Leaders must behave in ways consistent with the values and practices they wish to see imitated throughout the organization. If the change the leader wants is a stronger focus on customer service, leaders must treat employees as customers, thereby acting as role models for the way customers should be treated. The leaders must also talk in positive terms about customer service, with a statement such as, “The real joy in our work is helping customers solve their problems.” Another frequently used method of bringing about change by acting as a role model is for the newly appointed leader to be frugal to encourage frugality throughout the organization. The frugal CEO, for example, might ﬂy on commercial airlines and not by corporate jet, have one instead of several administrative assistants, and eat lunch in the company cafeteria. Impose a new approach through executive edict. From the time he started his position as chairman and CEO of General Electric, Jeff Immelt was on a mission to transform the hard-driving process-oriented company into an organization steeped in creativity https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 1/2 2019/10/10 Print Preview and wired for business growth. In addition to outstanding efﬁciency in operations, Immelt presented new imperatives for risk taking, sophisticated marketing, and, of utmost importance, innovation. Ten years later, his approach to culture change was still bringing about positive, but not spectacular, results. Establish a reward system that reinforces the culture, such as giving huge suggestion awards to promote an innovative culture. Jeff Bezos at Amazon.com is so committed to innovation that being imaginative is almost a requirement for being promoted into a key position at the company. Select candidates for positions at all levels whose values mesh with the values of the desired culture. Many ﬁrms hire only those candidates whose work and school experience suggest that they might be good team players—a cultural value. Sponsor new training and development programs that support the desired cultural values. Among many examples, top management might sponsor diversity training to support the importance of cultural diversity, or training in quality to support the value of quality. A leader who exhibited all of these behaviors would qualify as a transformational leader because of all the positive changes. Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-3 Leadership Inﬂuence for Organizational Change Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning © 2019 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner – without the written permission of the copyright holder. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 2/2 2019/10/10 Print Preview Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-4b Sequencing of Inﬂuence Tactics Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning 8-4b Sequencing of Inﬂuence Tactics Another important consideration in using inﬂuence tactics is the sequence or order in which they should be applied. In general, you should begin with the most positive, or least abrasive, tactic. If you do not gain the advantage you seek, proceed to a stronger tactic. For example, if you want a larger salary increase than that initially assigned you, try rational persuasion. If persuasion does not work, move on to exchanging favors. Use a more abrasive tactic such as upward appeal only as a last resort. The reason is that abrasive tactics trigger revenge and retaliation. Many people who have taken their complaints to an outside agency, such as a governmental ofﬁce, have found themselves with a limited future in their organization. Although the appeal is legally justiﬁed, it is politically unwise. The sequencing of tactics can also be considered in terms of cost and risk. A sensible approach is to begin with low-cost, low-risk tactics. If the outcome is important enough to the inﬂuence agent, he or she can then proceed to higher-cost and higher-risk inﬂuence tactics. An example of a low-cost, low-risk tactic would be joking and kidding. An accounting manager who was disappointed with the budget offered to her group might say to her boss, “Does the new budget mean that our group will have to pay for our own laser cartridges and green eyeshades?“ It would be much more costly in terms of time and potential retaliation to form a coalition with another under-budgeted group to ask for an enlarged budget. In addition to the sequencing of tactics, the inﬂuence agent must also consider the direction of the inﬂuence attempt as a contingency factor. In general, the more position power an individual exerts over another, the less the need for being cautious in the use of inﬂuence tactics. For example, a vice president can more readily use undue pressure against a supervisor than vice versa. When you have more power, there are likely to be fewer negative consequences from using more powerful tactics. Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-3 provides an opportunity to practice implementing various inﬂuence tactics. As with any other skill, inﬂuence skills need to be practiced under ﬁeld conditions. Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 8-3 Applying Inﬂuence Tactics Divide the class into small teams. Each group assigns one leadership inﬂuence tactic to each team member. During the next week or so, each team member takes the opportunity to practice the assigned inﬂuence tactic in a work or personal setting. Hold a group discussion with the same class teams after the inﬂuence attempts have been practiced. Report the following information: (1) under what circumstances the inﬂuence tactic was attempted; https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 1/2 2019/10/10 Print Preview (2) how the inﬂuence target reacted; and (3) what results, both positive and negative, were achieved. Practicing inﬂuence tactics directly contributes to your leadership effectiveness because leadership centers on inﬂuence. If you want to exert leadership as a nonmanager, you will have to be particularly adept at using inﬂuence tactics because your formal authority will be quite limited. Chapter 8: Inﬂuence Tactics of Leaders: 8-4b Sequencing of Inﬂuence Tactics Book Title: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills Printed By: Lin Lin (llin8@una.edu) © 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning © 2019 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner – without the written permission of the copyright holder. https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?deploymentId=486804192452246281052310733&eISBN=9781305273191&id=535542018&nbId=1271802… 2/2

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